Writings of Eusebius - The Life of Constantine
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Translated by Ernest Cushing Richardson, Ph.d.
librarian and associate professor in hartford theological seminary.
Under the editorial supervision of Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History in the Union Theological Semimary, New York,
and Henry Wace, D.D., Principal of King's College, London
Published in 1890 by Philip Schaff,
New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co.
Book IV.
Chapter I.--How he honored Many by Presents and Promotions.
While thus variously engaged in promoting the extension and glory of
the church of God, and striving by every measure to commend the
Saviour's doctrine, the emperor was far from neglecting secular
affairs; but in this respect also he was unwearied in bestowing
benefits of every kind and in quick succession on the people of every
province. On the one hand he manifested a paternal anxiety for the
general welfare of his subjects; on the other he would distinguish
individuals of his own acquaintance with various marks of honor;
conferring his benefits in every instance in a truly noble spirit. No
one could request a favor from the emperor, and fail of obtaining what
he sought: no one expected a boon from him, and found that expectation
vain. [3308] Some received presents in money, others in land; some
obtained the Prætorian præfecture, others senatorial, others again
consular rank: many were appointed provincial governors: others were
made counts of the first, second, or third order: in numberless
instances the title of Most Illustrious and many other distinctions
were conferred; for the emperor devised new dignities, that he might
invest a larger number with the tokens of his favor.
Footnotes
[3308] Compare Prolegomena, under Character, for the criticism of this
conduct from those who viewed it from another point of view.
Chapter II.--Remission of a Fourth Part of the Taxes.
The extent to which he studied the general happiness and prosperity
may be understood from a single instance most beneficial and universal
in its application, and still gratefully remembered. He remitted a
fourth part of the yearly tribute paid for land, and bestowed it on
the owners of the soil; so that if we compute this yearly reduction,
we shall find that the cultivators enjoyed their produce free of
tribute every fourth year. [3309] This privilege being established by
law, and secured for the time to come, has given occasion for the
emperor's beneficence to be held, not merely by the then present
generation, but by their children and descendants, in perpetual
remembrance.
Footnotes
[3309] For directly contrary account of his taxations, compare
Prolegomena, under Character.
Chapter III.--Equalization of the More Oppressive Taxes.
And whereas some persons found fault with the surveys of land which
had been made under former emperors, and complained that their
property was unduly burdened; acting in this case also on the
principles of justice, he sent commissioners to equalize the tribute,
and to secure immunity to those who had made this appeal.
Chapter IV.--His Liberality, from His Private Resources, to the Losers
in Suits of a Pecuniary Nature.
In cases of judicial arbitration, in order that the loser by his
decision might not quit his presence less contented than the
victorious litigant, he himself bestowed, and from his own private
means, in some cases lands, in other money, on the defeated party. In
this manner he took care that the loser, as having appeared in his
presence, should be as well satisfied as the gainer of the cause; for
he considered that no one ought in any case to retire dejected and
sorrowful from an interview with such a prince. [3310] Thus it
happened that both parties returned from the scene of trial with glad
and cheerful countenances, while the emperor's noble-minded liberality
excited universal admiration.
Footnotes
[3310] In reality it may have been less childish than Eusebius makes
it appear, for it probably refers to cases where it was a matter of
just equalization of claims, where each party thought his claim just.
Chapter V.--Conquest of the Scythians defeated through the Sign of Our
Saviour.
And why should I relate even briefly and incidentally, how he
subjected barbarous nations to the Roman power; how he was the first
who subjugated the Scythian [3311] and Sarmatian tribes, which had
never learned submission, and compelled them, how unwilling soever, to
own the sovereignty of Rome? For the emperors who preceded him had
actually rendered tribute to the Scythians: and Romans, by an annual
payment, had confessed themselves servants to barbarians; an indignity
which our emperor could no longer bear, nor think it consistent with
his victorious career to continue the payment his predecessors had
made. Accordingly, with full confidence in his Saviour's aid, he
raised his conquering standard against these enemies also, and soon
reduced them all to obedience; coercing by military force those who
fiercely resisted his authority, while, on the other hand, he
conciliated the rest by wisely conducted embassies, and reclaimed them
to a state of order and civilization from their lawless and savage
life. Thus the Scythians at length learned to acknowledge subjection
to the power of Rome.
Footnotes
[3311] [Probably the Goths are meant, as in Socrates' Eccles. Hist.
Bk. I. ch. 18.--Bag.] Compare for his Gothic wars, references in
Prolegomena, under Life.
Chapter VI.--Conquest of the Sarmatians, consequent on the Rebellion
of their Slaves.
With respect to the Sarmatians, God himself brought them beneath the
rule of Constantine, and subdued a nation swelling with barbaric pride
in the following manner. Being attacked by the Scythians, they had
entrusted their slaves with arms, in order to repel the enemy. These
slaves first overcame the invaders and then, turning their weapons
against their masters, drove them all from their native land. The
expelled Sarmatians found that their only hope of safety was in
Constantine's protection: and he, whose familiar habit it was to save
men's lives, received them all within the confines of the Roman
empire. [3312] Those who were capable of serving he incorporated with
his own troops: to the rest he allotted lands to cultivate for their
own support: so that they themselves acknowledged that their past
misfortune had produced a happy result, in that they now enjoyed Roman
liberty in place of savage barbarism. In this manner God added to his
dominions many and various barbaric tribes.
Footnotes
[3312] To the number of 300,000, according to Anonymus Valesianus.
This was in the year 334.
Chapter VII.--Ambassadors from Different Barbarous Nations receive
Presents from the Emperor.
Indeed, ambassadors were continually arriving from all nations,
bringing for his acceptance their most precious gifts. So that I
myself have sometimes stood near the entrance of the imperial palace,
and observed a noticeable array of barbarians in attendance, differing
from each other in costume and decorations, and equally unlike in the
fashion of their hair and beard. Their aspect truculent and terrible,
their bodily stature prodigious: some of a red complexion, others
white as snow, others again of an intermediate color. For in the
number of those I have referred to might be seen specimens of the
Blemmyan tribes, of the Indians, and the Ethiopians, [3313] "that
widely-divided race, remotest of mankind." All these in due
succession, like some painted pageant, presented to the emperor those
gifts which their own nation held in most esteem; some offering crowns
of gold, others diadems set with precious stones; some bringing
fair-haired boys, others barbaric vestments embroidered with gold and
flowers: some appeared with horses, others with shields and long
spears, with arrows and bows, thereby offering their services and
alliance for the emperor's acceptance. These presents he separately
received and carefully laid aside, acknowledging them in so munificent
a manner as at once to enrich those who bore them. He also honored the
noblest among them with Roman offices of dignity; so that many of them
thenceforward preferred to continue their residence among us, and felt
no desire to revisit their native land.
Footnotes
[3313] [Aiphiopas, toi dichtha dedaiatai, zschatoi andron, Hoi men
dusomenou huperionos, hoi d' aniontos. --Odyss. 1. 23, 24.--Bag.]
Chapter VIII.--That he wrote also to the King of Persia, [3314] who
had sent him an Embassy, on Behalf of the Christians in his Realm.
The king of the Persians also having testified a desire to form an
alliance with Constantine, by sending an embassy and presents as
assurances of peace and friendship, the emperor, in negotiating this
treaty, far surpassed the monarch who had first done him honor, in the
magnificence with which he acknowledged his gifts. Having heard, too,
that there were many churches of God in Persia, and that large numbers
there were gathered into the fold of Christ, full of joy at this
intelligence, he resolved to extend his anxiety for the general
welfare to that country also, as one whose aim it was to care for all
alike in every nation.
Footnotes
[3314] Sapor II. (310-381) called the Great, one of the Sassanidæ and
afterwards the persistent enemy of the sons of Constantine. He was at
various times a bitter persecutor of the Christians, and it is said
(Plate) that "no Persian king had ever caused such terror to Rome as
this monarch." Compare article by Plate on the Sassanidæ in Smith,
Dict. of Gr. and R. Biog. and Mythol.
Chapter IX.--Letter of Constantine Augustus to Sapor, King of the
Persians, containing a truly Pious Confession of God and Christ.
Copy of his Letter to the King of Persia.
"By keeping the Divine faith, I am made a partaker of the light of
truth: guided by the light of truth, I advance in the knowledge of the
Divine faith. Hence it is that, as my actions themselves evince, I
profess the most holy religion; and this worship I declare to be that
which teaches me deeper acquaintance with the most holy God; aided by
whose Divine power, beginning from the very borders of the ocean, I
have aroused each nation of the world in succession to a well-grounded
hope of security; so that those which, groaning in servitude to the
most cruel tyrants and yielding to the pressure of their daily
sufferings, had well nigh been utterly destroyed, have been restored
through my agency to a far happier state. This God I confess that I
hold in unceasing honor and remembrance; this God I delight to
contemplate with pure and guileless thoughts in the height of his
glory.
Chapter X.--The Writer denounces Idols, and glorifies God.
"This God I invoke with bended knees, and recoil with horror from the
blood of sacrifices, from their foul and detestable odors, and from
every earth-born magic fire: [3315] for the profane and impious
superstitions which are defiled by these rites have cast down and
consigned to perdition many, nay, whole nations of the Gentile world.
For he who is Lord of all cannot endure that those blessings which, in
his own loving-kindness and consideration of the wants of men, he has
revealed for the use of all, should be perverted to serve the lusts of
any. His only demand from man is purity of mind and an undefiled
spirit; and by this standard he weighs the actions of virtue and
godliness. For his pleasure is in works of moderation and gentleness:
he loves the meek, and hates the turbulent spirit: delighting in
faith, he chastises unbelief: by him all presumptuous power is broken
down, and he avenges the insolence of the proud. While the arrogant
and haughty are utterly overthrown, he requires the humble and
forgiving with deserved rewards: even so does he highly honor and
strengthen with his special help a kingdom justly governed, and
maintains a prudent king in the tranquillity of peace.
Footnotes
[3315] [Referring to the luminous appearances produced by the Pagan
priests in the celebration of their mysteries.--Bag.]
Chapter XI.--Against the Tyrants and Persecutors; and on the Captivity
of Valerian.
"I cannot, then, my brother believe that I err in acknowledging this
one God, the author and parent of all things: whom many of my
predecessors in power, led astray by the madness of error, have
ventured to deny, but who were all visited with a retribution so
terrible and so destructive, that all succeeding generations have held
up their calamities as the most effectual warning to any who desire to
follow in their steps. Of the number of these I believe him [3316] to
have been, whom the lightning-stroke of Divine vengeance drove forth
from hence, and banished to your dominions and whose disgrace
contributed to the fame of your celebrated triumph.
Footnotes
[3316] [Valerian, who had been a persecutor of the Christians, and
whose expedition against the Persians had terminated in his own
captivity, and subjection to every kind of insult and cruelty from the
conquerors.--Bag.]
Chapter XII.--He declares that, having witnessed the Fall of the
Persecutors, he now rejoices at the Peace enjoyed by the Christians.
"And it is surely a happy circumstance that the punishment of such
persons as I have described should have been publicly manifested in
our own times. For I myself have witnessed the end of those who lately
harassed the worshipers of God by their impious edict. And for this
abundant thanksgivings are due to God that through his excellent
Providence all men who observe his holy laws are gladdened by the
renewed enjoyment of peace. Hence I am fully persuaded that everything
is in the best and safest posture, since God is vouchsafing, through
the influence of their pure and faithful religious service, and their
unity of judgment respecting his Divine character, to gather all men
to himself.
Chapter XIII.--He bespeaks his Affectionate Interest for the
Christians in his Country.
"Imagine, then, with what joy I heard tidings so accordant with my
desire, that the fairest districts of Persia are filled with those men
on whose behalf alone I am at present speaking, I mean the Christians.
I pray, therefore, that both you and they may enjoy abundant
prosperity, and that your blessings and theirs may be in equal
measure; [3317] for thus you will experience the mercy and favor of
that God who is the Lord and Father of all. And now, because your
power is great, I commend these persons to your protection; because
your piety is eminent, I commit them to your care. Cherish them with
your wonted humanity and kindness; for by this proof of faith you will
secure an immeasurable benefit both to yourself and us."
Footnotes
[3317] [The sense given above of this passage (which in the text is
corrupt), is founded on the reading restored by Valesius from
Theodoritus and Nicephorus.--Bag.] Stroth translates (Hein.), "So I
desire for you the greatest prosperity; and for them, too, I wish that
it may prosper as with you."
Chapter XIV.--How the Zealous Prayers of Constantine procured Peace to
the Christians.
Thus, the nations of the world being everywhere guided in their course
as it were by the skill of a single pilot, and acquiescing in the
administration of him who governed as the servant of God, the peace of
the Roman empire continued undisturbed, and all classes of his
subjects enjoyed a life of tranquillity and repose. At the same time
the emperor, who was convinced that the prayers of godly men
contributed powerfully to the maintenance of the public welfare, felt
himself constrained zealously to seek such prayers and not only
himself implored the help and favor of God, but charged the prelates
of the churches to offer supplications on his behalf.
Chapter XV.--He causes himself to be represented on his Coins, and in
his Portraits, in the Attitude of Prayer.
How deeply his soul was impressed by the power of divine faith may be
understood from the circumstance that he directed his likeness to be
stamped on the golden coin of the empire with the eyes uplifted as in
the posture of prayer to God: and this money became current throughout
the Roman world. His portrait also at full length was placed over the
entrance gates of the palaces in some cities, the eyes upraised to
heaven, and the hands outspread as if in prayer.
Chapter XVI.--He forbids by Law the Placing his Likeness in Idol
Temples.
In this manner he represented himself, even through the medium of
painting, as habitually engaged in prayer to God. At the same time he
forbade, by an express enactment, the setting up of any resemblance of
himself in any idol temple, that not even the mere lineaments of his
person might receive contamination from the error of forbidden
superstition.
Chapter XVII.--Of his Prayers in the Palace, and his Reading the Holy
Scriptures.
Still nobler proofs of his piety might be discerned by those who
marked how he modeled as it were his very palace into a church of God,
and himself afforded a pattern of zeal to those assembled therein: how
he took the sacred scriptures into his hands, and devoted himself to
the study of those divinely inspired oracles; after which he would
offer up regular prayers with all the members of his imperial court.
Chapter XVIII.--He enjoins the General Observance of the Lord's Day,
and the Day of Preparation.
He ordained, too, that one day should be regarded as a special
occasion for prayer: I mean that which is truly the first and chief of
all, the day of our Lord and Saviour. The entire care of his household
was entrusted to deacons and other ministers consecrated to the
service of God, and distinguished by gravity of life and every other
virtue: while his trusty body guard, strong in affection and fidelity
to his person, found in their emperor an instructor in the practice of
piety, and like him held the Lord's salutary day in honor and
performed on that day the devotions which he loved. The same
observance was recommended by this blessed prince to all classes of
his subjects: his earnest desire being gradually to lead all mankind
to the worship of God. Accordingly he enjoined on all the subjects of
the Roman empire to observe the Lord's day, as a day of rest, and also
to honor the day which precedes the Sabbath; in memory, I suppose, of
what the Saviour of mankind is recorded to have achieved on that day.
[3318] And since his desire was to teach his whole army zealously to
honor the Saviour's day (which derives its name from light, and from
the sun), [3319] he freely granted to those among them who were
partakers of the divine faith, leisure for attendance on the services
of the Church of God, in order that they might be able, without
impediment, to perform their religious worship.
Footnotes
[3318] [That is, Friday. The passage is not very intelligible. Does it
mean that Constantine ordered this day to be distinguished in some way
from others, as the day of the Lord's crucifixion?--Bag.]
[3319] [The decree of Constantine for the general observance of Sunday
appears to have been issued a.d. 321, before which time both "the old
and new sabbath" were observed by Christians. "Constantine (says
Gibbon, ch. 20, note 8) styles the Lord's day Dies solis, a name which
could not offend the ears of his Pagan subjects."--Bag.] This has been
urged as ground for saying that Constantine did not commit himself to
Christianity until the end of life, but it only shows his tact and
care in treating the diverse elements of his empire.
Chapter XIX.--That he directed even his Pagan Soldiers to pray on the
Lord's Day.
With regard to those who were as yet ignorant of divine truth, he
provided by a second statute that they should appear on each Lord's
day on an open plain near the city, and there, at a given signal,
offer to God with one accord a prayer which they had previously
learnt. He admonished them that their confidence should not rest in
their spears, or armor, or bodily strength, but that they should
acknowledge the supreme God as the giver of every good, and of victory
itself; to whom they were bound to offer their prayers with due
regularity, uplifting their hands toward heaven, and raising their
mental vision higher still to the king of heaven, on whom they should
call as the Author of victory, their Preserver, Guardian, and Helper.
The emperor himself prescribed the prayer to be used by all his
troops, commanding them, to pronounce the following words in the Latin
tongue:
Chapter XX.--The Form of Prayer given by Constantine to his Soldiers.
"We acknowledge thee the only God: we own thee, as our King and
implore thy succor. By thy favor have we gotten the victory: through
thee are we mightier than our enemies. We render thanks for thy past
benefits, and trust thee for future blessings. Together we pray to
thee, and beseech thee long to preserve to us, safe and triumphant,
our emperor Constantine and his pious sons." Such was the duty to be
performed on Sunday by his troops, and such the prayer they were
instructed to offer up to God.
Chapter XXI.--He orders the Sign of the Saviour's Cross to be engraven
on his Soldiers' Shields.
And not only so, but he also caused the sign of the salutary trophy to
be impressed on the very shields of his soldiers; and commanded that
his embattled forces should be preceded in their march, not by golden
images, as heretofore, [3320] but only by the standard of the cross.
Footnotes
[3320] Compare for these, Yates, article Signa Militaria in Smith,
Dict. Gr. and Rom. Ant., where there is given cut of the arch of
Constantine showing such standards.
Chapter XXII.--Of his Zeal in Prayer, and the Honor he paid to the
Feast of Easter.
The emperor himself, as a sharer in the holy mysteries of our
religion, would seclude himself daily at a stated hour in the
innermost chambers of his palace; and there in solitary converse with
his God, would kneel in humble supplication, and entreat the blessings
of which he stood in need. But especially at the salutary feast of
Easter, his religious diligence was redoubled; he fulfilled as it were
the duties of a hierophant with every energy of his mind and body, and
outvied all others in the zealous celebration of this feast. He
changed, too, the holy night vigil into a brightness like that of day,
by causing waxen tapers of great length to be lighted throughout the
city: besides which, torches everywhere diffused their light, so as to
impart to this mystic vigil a brilliant splendor beyond that of day.
[3321] As soon as day itself returned, in imitation of our Saviour's
gracious acts, he opened a liberal hand to his subjects of every
nation, province, and people, and lavished abundant bounties on all.
Footnotes
[3321] Compare Venables, Easter, Ceremonies of, in Smith and Cheetham,
Dict., for account of the customs of the day.
Chapter XXIII.--How he forbade Idolatrous Worship, but honored Martyrs
and the Church Festivals.
Such were his sacred ministrations in the service of his God. At the
same time, his subjects, both civil and military, throughout the
empire, found a barrier everywhere opposed against idol worship, and
every kind of sacrifice forbidden. [3322] A statute was also passed,
enjoining the due observance of the Lord's day, and transmitted to the
governors of every province, who undertook, at the emperor's command,
to respect the days commemorative of martyrs, and duly to honor the
festal seasons in the churches: [3323] and all these intentions were
fullfilled to the emperor's entire satisfaction.
Footnotes
[3322] [This prohibition must be limited to private sacrifices. See
Bk. II., ch. 45, note.--Bag.]
[3323] "Str. rightly translates `and honored the festal days by public
gatherings,' while Val. [and Bag.] falsely renders `duly honored the
festival seasons of the church.'"--Hein.
Chapter XXIV.--That he described himself to be a Bishop, in Charge of
Affairs External to the Church.
Hence it was not without reason that once, on the occasion of his
entertaining a company of bishops, he let fall the expression, "that
he himself too was a bishop," addressing them in my hearing in the
following words: "You are bishops whose jurisdiction is within the
Church: I also am a bishop, ordained by God to overlook whatever is
external to the Church." [3324] And truly his measures corresponded
with his words: for he watched over his subjects with an episcopal
care, and exhorted them as far as in him lay to follow a godly life.
Footnotes
[3324] This saying of Constantine has occasioned a deal of exegesis
and conjecture. Compare monograph of Walch mentioned under Literature
in the Prolegomena for discussion and references to other older
literature.
Chapter XXV.--Prohibition of Sacrifices, of Mystic Rites, Combats of
Gladiators, also the Licentious Worship of the Nile.
Consistently with this zeal he issued successive laws and ordinances,
forbidding any to offer sacrifice to idols, to consult diviners, to
erect images, or to pollute the cities with the sanguinary combats of
gladiators. [3325] And inasmuch as the Egyptians, especially those of
Alexandria, had been accustomed to honor their river through a
priesthood composed of effeminate men, a further law was passed
commanding the extermination of the whole class as vicious, that no
one might thenceforward be found tainted with the like impurity. And
whereas the superstitious inhabitants apprehended that the river would
in consequence withhold its customary flood, God himself showed his
approval of the emperor's law by ordering all things in a manner quite
contrary to their expectation. For those who had defiled the cities by
their vicious conduct were indeed seen no more; but the river, as if
the country through which it flowed had been purified to receive it,
rose higher than ever before, and completely overflowed the country
with its fertilizing streams: thus effectually admonishing the deluded
people to turn from impure men, and ascribe their prosperity to him
alone who is the Giver of all good.
Footnotes
[3325] The most accessible reference for getting a glimpse of the
legislation of Constantine in these and similar regards is the
section, The alteration in general and penal legislation in
Wordsworth's Constantinus I., in Smith and Wace, Dict. 1 (1877). This
section is on p. 636-7. Compare also the laws themselves as gathered
in Migne, Patrol. lat. vol. 8. Compare also Prolegomena for general
statement of the value of his legislation and his reputation as
legislator.
Chapter XXVI.--Amendment of the Law in Force respecting Childless
Persons, and of the Law of Wills.
So numerous, indeed, were the benefits of this kind conferred by the
emperor on every province, as to afford ample materials to any who
might desire to record them. Among these may be instanced those laws
which he entirely remodelled, and established on a more equitable
basis: the nature of which reform may be briefly and easily explained.
The childless were punished under the old law with the forfeiture of
their hereditary property, a merciless statute, which dealt with them
as positive criminals. The emperor annulled this, and decreed that
those so circumstanced should inherit. He regulated the question on
the principles of equity and justice, arguing willful transgressors
should be chastised with the penalties their crimes deserve. But
nature herself denies children to many, who long, perhaps, for a
numerous offspring, but are disappointed of their hope by bodily
infirmity. Others continue childless, not from any dislike of
posterity, but because their ardent love of philosophy [3326] renders
them averse to the conjugal union. Women, too, consecrated to the
service of God, have maintained a pure and spotless virginity, and
have devoted themselves, soul and body to a life of entire chastity
and holiness. What then? Should this conduct be deemed worthy of
punishment, or rather of admiration and praise; since to desire this
state is in itself honorable, and to maintain it surpasses the power
of unassisted nature? Surely those whose bodily infirmity destroys
their hope of offspring are worthy of pity, not of punishment: and he
who devotes himself to a higher object calls not for chastisement, but
especial admiration. On such principles of sound reason did the
emperor rectify the defects of this law. Again, with regard to the
wills of dying persons, the old laws had ordained that they should be
expressed, even at the latest breath, as it were, in certain definite
words, and had prescribed the exact form and terms to be employed.
This practice had occasioned many fraudulent attempts to hinder the
intentions of the deceased from being carried into full effect. As
soon as our emperor was aware of these abuses, he reformed this law
likewise, declaring that a dying man ought to be permitted to indicate
his last wishes in as few words as possible, and in whatever terms he
pleased; and to set forth his will in any written form; or even by
word of mouth, provided it were done in the presence of proper
witnesses, who might be competent faithfully to discharge their trust.
Footnotes
[3326] [The word "philosophy," here and in the 28th Chapter, plainly
indicates that virginity which was so highly honored in the earlier
ages of Christianity, and the undue exaltation of which was
productive, necessarily, of evils which it is scarcely possible to
estimate at their full extent.--Bag.] On the growing prevalence of the
practice of virginity compare Hatch, Virgins, in Smith and Cheetham,
Dict. But this note belongs rather to the paragraph below; for the
author does not refer to Christian virginity but primarily to
philosophical celibacy in this instance. The Neo-Platonic philosophy
of the times, through its doctrine of the purification of the soul by
its liberation from the body or sensuous things, taught celibacy and
ascetic practices generally. So Plotinus (d. 270 a.d.) practiced and
taught to a degree, and Porphyry (d. 301+) more explicitly. Compare
rich literature on Neo-Platonism, and conveniently Zeller, Outlines of
Gr. Philos. Lond., 1886, p. 326-43, passim.
Chapter XXVII.--Among Other Enactments, he decrees that no Christian
shall slave to a Jew, and affirms the Validity of the Decisions of
Councils.
He also passed a law to the effect that no Christian should remain in
servitude to a Jewish master, on the ground that it could not be right
that those whom the Saviour had ransomed should be subjected to the
yoke of slavery by a people who had slain the prophets and the Lord
himself. If any were found hereafter in these circumstances, the slave
was to be set at liberty, and the master punished by a fine.
He likewise added the sanction of his authority to the decisions of
bishops passed at their synods, and forbade the provincial governors
to annul any of their decrees: for he rated the priests of God at a
higher value than any judge whatever. These and a thousand similar
provisions did he enact for the benefit of his subjects; but there is
not time now to give a special description of them, such as might
convey an accurate idea of his imperial wisdom in these respects: nor
need I now relate at length, how, as a devoted servant of the Supreme
God, he employed himself from morning until night in seeking objects
for his beneficence, and how equally and universally kind he was to
all.
Chapter XXVIII.--His Gifts to the Churches, and Bounties to Virgins
and to the Poor.
His liberality, however, was most especially exercised on behalf of
the churches of God. In some cases he granted lands, in others he
issued supplies of food for the support of the poor, of orphan
children, and widows; besides which, he evinced much care and
forethought in fully providing the naked and destitute with clothing.
He distinguished, however, with most special honor those who had
devoted their lives to the practice of Divine philosophy. Hence his
respect, little short of veneration, for God's most holy and ever
virgin choir: for he felt assured that the God to whom such persons
devoted themselves was himself an inmate of their souls.
Chapter XXIX.--Of Constantine's Discourses and Declamations. [3327]
For himself, he sometimes passed sleepless nights in furnishing his
mind with Divine knowledge: and much of his time was spent in
composing discourses, many of which he delivered in public; for he
conceived it to be incumbent on him to govern his subjects by
appealing to their reason, and to secure in all respects a rational
obedience to his authority. Hence he would sometimes himself evoke an
assembly, on which occasions vast multitudes attended, in the hope of
hearing an emperor sustain the part of a philosopher. And if in the
course of his speech any occasion offered of touching on sacred
topics, he immediately stood erect, and with a grave aspect and
subdued tone of voice seemed reverently to be initiating his auditors
in the mysteries of the Divine doctrine: and when they greeted him
with shouts of acclamation, he would direct them by his gestures to
raise their eyes to heaven, and reserve their admiration for the
Supreme King alone, and honor him with adoration and praise. He
usually divided the subjects of his address, first thoroughly exposing
the error of polytheism, and proving the superstition of the Gentiles
to be mere fraud, and a cloak for impiety. He then would assert the
sole sovereignty of God: passing thence to his Providence, both
general and particular. Proceeding next to the dispensation of
salvation, he would demonstrate its necessity, and adaptation to the
nature of the case; entering next in order on the doctrine of the
Divine judgment. [3328] And here especially he appealed most
powerfully to the consciences of his hearers, while he denounced the
rapacious and violent, and those who were slaves to an inordinate
thirst of gain. Nay, he caused some of his own acquaintance who were
present to feel the severe lash of his words, and to stand with
downcast eyes in the consciousness of guilt, while he testified
against them in the clearest and most impressive terms that they would
have an account to render of their deeds to God. He reminded them that
God himself had given him the empire of the world, portions of which
he himself, acting on the same Divine principle, had intrusted to
their government; but that all would in due time be alike summoned to
give account of their actions to the Supreme Sovereign of all. Such
was his constant testimony; such his admonition and instruction. And
he himself both felt and uttered these sentiments in the genuine
confidence of faith: but his hearers were little disposed to learn,
and deaf to sound advice; receiving his words indeed with loud
applause, but induced by insatiable cupidity practically to disregard
them.
Footnotes
[3327] Compare Prolegomena, under Character and Writings.
[3328] Compare Prolegomena, and the Oration appended to this work.
Chapter XXX.--That he marked out before a Covetous Man the Measure of
a Grave, and so put him to Shame.
On one occasion he thus personally addressed one of his courtiers:
"How far, my friend, are we to carry our inordinate desires?" Then
drawing the dimensions of a human figure with a lance which he
happened to have in his hand, he continued: "Though thou couldst
obtain the whole wealth of this world, yea, the whole world itself,
thou wilt carry with thee at last no more than this little spot which
I have marked out, if indeed even that be thine." [3329] Such were the
words and actions of this blessed prince; and though at the time he
failed to reclaim any from their evil ways, yet notwithstanding the
course of events afforded evident proof that his admonitions were more
like Divine prophecies than mere words.
Footnotes
[3329] [Since it is uncertain whether thou wilt be buried in the
ground, or consumed by fire, or drowned in the sea, or devoured by
wild beasts (Valesius in loc.).--Bag.]
Chapter XXXI.--That he was derided because of his Excessive Clemency.
[3330]
Meantime, since there was no fear of capital punishment to deter from
the commission of crime, for the emperor himself was uniformly
inclined to clemency, and none of the provincial governors visited
offenses with their proper penalties, this state of things drew with
it no small degree of blame on the general administration of the
empire; whether justly or not, let every one form his own judgment:
for myself, I only ask permission to record the fact.
Footnotes
[3330] Compare Prolegomena, under Character.
Chapter XXXII.--Of Constantine's Oration which he wrote to the
Assembly of the Saints. [3331]
The emperor was in the habit of composing his orations in the Latin
tongue, from which they were translated into Greek by interpreters
appointed for this special service. One of the discourses thus
translated I intend to annex, by way of specimen, to this present
work, that one, I mean, which he inscribed "To the assembly of the
saints," and dedicated to the Church of God, that no one may have
ground for deeming my testimony on this head mere empty praise.
Footnotes
[3331] Compare the Oration itself following this work.
Chapter XXXIII.--How he listened standing to Eusebius' Declamation in
Honor of our Saviour's Sepulchre.
One act, however, I must by no means omit to record, which this
admirable prince performed in my own presence. On one occasion,
emboldened by the confident assurance I entertained of his piety, I
had begged permission to pronounce a discourse on the subject of our
Saviour's sepulchre in his hearing. With this request he most readily
complied, and in the midst of a large number of auditors, in the
interior of the palace itself, he stood and listened with the rest. I
entreated him, but in vain, to seat himself on the imperial throne
which stood near: he continued with fixed attention to weigh the
topics of my discourse, and gave his own testimony to the truth of the
theological doctrines it contained. After some time had passed, the
oration being of considerable length, I was myself desirous of
concluding; but this he would not permit, and exhorted me to proceed
to the very end. On my again entreating him to sit, he in his turn was
displeased and said that it was not right to listen in a careless
manner to the discussion of doctrines relating to God; and again, that
this posture was good and profitable to himself, since it was reverent
to stand while listening to sacred truths. Having, therefore,
concluded my discourse, I returned home, and resumed my usual
occupations.
Chapter XXXIV.--That he wrote to Eusebius respecting Easter, and
respecting Copies of the Holy Scriptures.
Ever careful for the welfare of the churches of God, the emperor
addressed me personally in a letter on the means of providing copies
of the inspired oracles, and also on the subject of the most holy
feast of Easter. For I had myself dedicated to him an exposition of
the mystical import of that feast; and the manner in which he honored
me with a reply may be understood by any one who reads the following
letter.
Chapter XXXV.--Constantine's Letter to Eusebius, in praise of his
Discourse concerning Easter.
"Victor Constantinus, Maximus Augustus, to Eusebius.
"It is indeed an arduous task, and beyond the power of language
itself, worthily to treat of the mysteries of Christ, and to explain
in a fitting manner the controversy respecting the feast of Easter,
its origin as well as its precious and toilsome accomplishment. [3332]
For it is not in the power even of those who are able to apprehend
them, adequately to describe the things of God. I am, notwithstanding,
filled with admiration of your learning and zeal, and have not only
myself read your work with pleasure, but have given directions,
according to your own desire, that it be communicated to many sincere
followers of our holy religion. Seeing, then, with what pleasure we
receive favors of this kind from your Sagacity, be pleased to gladden
us more frequently with those compositions, to the practice of which,
indeed, you confess yourself to have been trained from an early
period, so that I am urging a willing man, as they say, in exhorting
you to your customary pursuits. And certainly the high and confident
judgment we entertain is a proof that the person who has translated
your writings into the Latin tongue is in no respect incompetent to
the task, impossible though it be that such version should fully equal
the excellence of the works themselves. God preserve you, beloved
brother." Such was his letter on this subject: and that which related
to the providing of copies of the Scriptures for reading in the
churches was to the following purport.
Footnotes
[3332] [i.e. through the sufferings and resurrection of Christ.--Bag.]
Chapter XXXVI.--Constantine's Letter to Eusebius on the Preparation of
Copies of the Holy Scriptures.
"Victor Constantinus, Maximus Augustus, to Eusebius.
"It happens, through the favoring providence of God our Saviour, that
great numbers have united themselves to the most holy church in the
city which is called by my name. It seems, therefore, highly
requisite, since that city is rapidly advancing in prosperity in all
other respects, that the number of churches should also be increased.
Do you, therefore, receive with all readiness my determination on this
behalf. I have thought it expedient to instruct your Prudence to order
fifty copies of the sacred Scriptures, the provision and use of which
you know to be most needful for the instruction of the Church, to be
written on prepared parchment in a legible manner, and in a
convenient, portable form, by professional transcribers thoroughly
practiced in their art. [3333] The catholicus [3334] of the diocese
has also received instructions by letter from our Clemency to be
careful to furnish all things necessary for the preparation of such
copies; and it will be for you to take special care that they be
completed with as little delay as possible. [3335] You have authority
also, in virtue of this letter, to use two of the public carriages for
their conveyance, by which arrangement the copies when fairly written
will most easily be forwarded for my personal inspection; and one of
the deacons of your church may be intrusted with this service, who, on
his arrival here, shall experience my liberality. God preserve you,
beloved brother!"
Footnotes
[3333] Molz.in a note regards these as lectionaries, but they are
usually thought to have been regular copies of the Scriptures in
Greek--Septuagint and N.T., and the Codex Sinaiticus has been thought
to be one of them. It dates from not earlier than the time of
Eusebius, as it contains the Eusebian Canons, but yet from the fourth
century. Altogether it is not impossible that it was one of these, and
at all events a description of it, extracted from Scriveners
(Introduction, 1883, p. 88 sq.), will be a fair illustration. "13½
inches in length by 14-7/8 inches high." "Beautiful vellum." "Each
page comprises four columns, with 48 lines in each column."
"Continuous noble uncials." "Arranged in quires of four or three
sheets." It is evident from comparison of several quotations of
Eusebius that the copy of the New Testament which he himself used was
not closely related with the Sinaitic text, unless the various
readings headed by this ms. are all mistakes originating with it.
Compare allusions in the notes to such different readings. The last
clause, although in the text of Heinichen, is of doubtful authority.
[3334] This word is a transcription, rendered "Procurator" by Bag.,
and is perhaps corresponding to that official (cf. Long. article
Fiscus, in Smith, Dict. Gr. and R. Ant.). But this transcription is
recognized (cf. Ffoulkes, Catholicus, in Smith and Cheetham, Dict.).
[3335] The fact that the Sinaiticus exhibits two or three hands
suggests that it was prepared with rapidity, and the having various
scribes was a way to speed.
Chapter XXXVII.--How the Copies were provided.
Such were the emperor's commands, which were followed by the immediate
execution of the work itself, which we sent him in magnificent and
elaborately bound volumes of a threefold and fourfold form. [3336]
This fact is attested by another letter, which the emperor wrote in
acknowledgment, in which, having heard that the city Constantia in our
country, the inhabitants of which had been more than commonly devoted
to superstition, had been impelled by a sense of religion to abandon
their past idolatry, he testified his joy, and approval of their
conduct.
Footnotes
[3336] [The parchment copies were usually arranged in quaternions,
i.e. four leaves made up together, as the ternions consisted of three
leaves. The quaternions each contained sixteen pages, the ternions
twelve (Valesius in loc.).--Bag.] So probably, although the
three-columned form of the Sinaiticus and the four of the Vaticanus
suggest a possible other meaning.
Chapter XXXVIII.--How the Market-Town of Gaza was made a City for its
Profession of Christianity, and received the Name of Constantia.
For in fact the place now called Constantia, in the province of
Palestine, having embraced the saving religion, was distinguished both
by the favor of God, and by special honor from the emperor, being now
for the first time raised to the rank of a city, and receiving the
more honored name of his pious sister in exchange for its former
appellation.
Chapter XXXIX.--That a Place in Phoenicia also was made a City, and in
Other Cities Idolatry was abolished, and Churches built.
A similar change was effected in several other cities; for instance,
in that town of Phoenicia which received its name from that of the
emperor, and the inhabitants of which committed their innumerable
idols to the flames, and adopted in their stead the principles of the
saving faith. Numbers, too, in the other provinces, both in the cities
and the country, became willing inquirers after the saving knowledge
of God; destroyed as worthless things the images of every kind which
they had heretofore held most sacred; voluntarily demolished the lofty
temples and shrines which contained them; and, renouncing their former
sentiments, or rather errors, commenced and completed entirely new
churches. But since it is not so much my province to give a
circumstantial detail of the actions of this pious prince, as it is
theirs who have been privileged to enjoy his society at all times, I
shall content myself with briefly recording such facts as have come to
my own personal knowledge, before I proceed to notice the last days of
his life.
Chapter XL.--That having conferred the Dignity of Cæsars on his Three
Sons at the Three Decennial Periods of his Reign, he dedicated the
Church at Jerusalem.
By this time the thirtieth year of his reign was completed. In the
course of this period, his three sons had been admitted at different
times as his colleagues in the empire. The first, Constantinus, who
bore his father's name, obtained this distinction about the tenth year
of his reign. Constantius, the second son, so called from his
grandfather, was proclaimed Cæsar about the twentieth, while Constans,
the third, whose name expresses the firmness and stability of his
character, was advanced to the same dignity at the thirtieth
anniversary of his father's reign. [3337] Having thus reared a
threefold offspring, a Trinity, [3338] as it were, of pious sons, and
having received them severally at each decennial period to a
participation in his imperial authority, he judged the festival of his
Tricennalia to be a fit occasion for thanksgiving to the Sovereign
Lord of all, at the same time believing that the dedication of the
church which his zealous magnificence had erected at Jerusalem might
advantageously be performed.
Footnotes
[3337] These are general dates; "about" the tenth, etc., would have
been more exact. Compare Prolegomena, under Life.
[3338] [GriEURdos logo. Well may the old English Translator remark on
this, "An odd expression." We may go further, and denounce it as an
instance of the senseless and profane adulation to which our author,
perhaps in the spirit of his age, seems to have been but too much
inclined.--Bag.]
Chapter XLI.--That in the meantime he ordered a Council to be convened
at Tyre, because of Controversies raised in Egypt.
Meanwhile that spirit of envy which is the enemy of all good, like a
dark cloud intercepting the sun's brightest rays, endeavored to mar
the joy of this festivity, by again raising contentions to disturb the
tranquillity of the Egyptian churches. Our divinely favored emperor,
however, once more convened a synod composed of many bishops, and set
them as it were in armed array, like the host of God, against this
malignant spirit, having commanded their presence from the whole of
Egypt and Libya, from Asia, and from Europe, in order, first, to
decide the questions in dispute, and afterwards to perform the
dedication of the sacred edifice above mentioned. He enjoined them, by
the way, to adjust their differences at the capital city of Phoenicia,
reminding them that they had no right, while harboring feelings of
mutual animosity, to engage in the service of God, since his law
expressly forbids those who are at variance to offer their gift until
they have first become reconciled and mutually disposed to peace. Such
were the salutary precepts which the emperor continually kept vividly
before his own mind, and in accordance with which he admonished them
to undertake their present duties in a spirit of perfect unanimity and
concord, in a letter to the following purport.
Chapter XLII.--Constantine's Letter to the Council at Tyre.
"Victor Constantinus, Maximus Augustus, to the holy Council at Tyre.
"Surely it would best consist with and best become the prosperity of
these our times, that the Catholic Church should be undivided, and the
servants of Christ be at this present moment clear from all reproach.
Since, however, there are those who, carried away by a baleful and
furious spirit of contention (for I will not charge them with
intentionally leading a life unworthy of their profession), are
endeavoring to create that general confusion which, in my judgment, is
the most pernicious of all evils; I exhort you, forward as you already
are, to meet together and form a synod without delay: to defend those
who need protection; to administer remedies to your brethren who are
in peril; to recall the divided members to unity of judgment; to
rectify errors while opportunity is yet allowed: that thus you may
restore to so many provinces that due measure of concord which,
strange and sad anomaly! the arrogance of a few individuals has
destroyed. And I believed that all are alike persuaded that this
course is at the same time pleasing to Almighty God (as well as the
highest object of my own desires), and will bring no small honor to
yourselves, should you be successful in restoring peace. Delay not,
then, but hasten with redoubled zeal to terminate the present
dissensions in a manner becoming the occasion, by assembling together
in that spirit of true sincerity and faith which the Saviour whom we
serve especially demands from us, I may almost say with an audible
voice, on all occasions. No proof of pious zeal on my part shall be
wanting. Already have I done all to which my attention was directed by
your letters. I have sent to those bishops whose presence you desired,
that they may share your counsels. I have despatched Dionysius, a man
of consular rank, who will both remind those prelates of their duty
who are bound to attend the Council with you, and will himself be
there to superintend the proceedings, but especially to maintain good
order. Meantime should any one, though I deem it most improbable,
venture on this occasion to violate my command, and refuse his
attendance, a messenger shall be despatched forthwith to banish that
person in virtue of an imperial edict, and to teach him that it does
not become him to resist an emperor's decrees when issued in defense
of truth. For the rest, it will be for your Holinesses, unbiased
either by enmity or favor, but consistently with ecclesiastical and
apostolic order, to devise a fitting remedy whether it be for positive
offenses or for unpremeditated errors; in order that you may at once
free the Church from all reproach, relieve my anxiety, and, by
restoring the blessings of peace to those who are now divided, procure
the highest honor for yourselves. God preserve you, beloved brethren!"
[3339]
Footnotes
[3339] Compare on the Synod of Tyre (held 335 a.d.), Hefele, Hist. of
Councils, 2 (1876), 17-26.
Chapter XLIII.--Bishops from all the Provinces attended the Dedication
of the Church at Jerusalem.
No sooner had these injunctions been carried into effect, than another
emissary arrived with despatches from the emperor, and an urgent
admonition to the Council to hasten their journey to Jerusalem without
delay. [3340] Accordingly they all took their departure from the
province of Phoenicia, and proceeded to their destination, availing
themselves of the public means of transport. Thus Jerusalem became the
gathering point for distinguished prelates from every province, and
the whole city was thronged by a vast assemblage of the servants of
God. The Macedonians had sent the bishop of their metropolis; [3341]
the Pannonians and Moesians the fairest of God's youthful flock among
them. A holy prelate from Persia too was there, deeply versed in the
sacred oracles; while Bithynian and Thracian bishops graced the
Council with their presence; nor were the most illustrious from
Cilicia wanting, nor the chief of the Cappadocians, distinguished
above all for learning and eloquence. In short, the whole of Syria and
Mesopotamia, Phoenicia and Arabia, Palestine, Egypt, and Libya, with
the dwellers in the Thebaid, all contributed to swell the mighty
concourse of God's ministers, followed as they were by vast numbers
from every province. They were attended by an imperial escort, [3342]
and officers of trust had also been sent from the palace itself, with
instructions to heighten the splendor of the festival at the emperor's
expense.
Footnotes
[3340] Compare Hefele, 2. 26-7.
[3341] [Alexander, bishop of Thessalonica. By the Pannonian and
Moesian bishops are meant Ursacius and Valens, leaders of the Arian
party; by the Bithynian and Thracian, Theogonius of Nicæa, and
Theodorus of Perinthus (Valesius).--Bag.]
[3342] "The emperor showed himself very attentive to them."--Molz.
Chapter XLIV.--Of their Reception by the Notary Marianus; the
Distribution of Money to the Poor; and Offerings to the Church.
The director and chief of these officers was a most useful servant of
the emperor, a man eminent for faith and piety, and thoroughly
acquainted with the Divine word, who had been honorably conspicuous by
his profession of godliness during the time of the tyrants' power, and
therefore was deservedly entrusted with the arrangement of the present
proceedings. Accordingly, in faithful obedience to the emperor's
commands, he received the assembly with courteous hospitality, and
entertained them with feasts and banquets on a scale of great
splendor. He also distributed lavish supplies of money and clothing
among the naked and destitute, and the multitudes of both sexes who
suffered from want of food and the common necessaries of life.
Finally, he enriched and beautified the church itself throughout with
offerings of imperial magnificence, and thus fully accomplished the
service he had been commissioned to perform.
Chapter XLV.--Various Discourses by the Assembled Bishops; also by
Eusebius, the Writer of this History.
Meantime the festival derived additional luster both from the prayers
and discourses of the ministers of God, some of whom extolled the
pious emperor's willing devotion to the Saviour of mankind, and
dilated on the magnificence of the edifice which he had raised to his
memory. Others afforded, as it were, an intellectual feast to the ears
of all present, by public disquisitions on the sacred doctrines of our
religion. Others interpreted passages of holy Scripture, and unfolded
their hidden meaning; while such as were unequal to these efforts
presented a bloodless sacrifice and mystical service to God in the
prayers which they offered for general peace, for the Church of God,
for the emperor himself as the instrumental cause of so many
blessings, and for his pious sons. I myself too, unworthy as I was of
such a privilege, pronounced various public orations in honor of this
solemnity, wherein I partly explained by a written description the
details of the imperial edifice, and partly endeavored to gather from
the prophetic visions apt illustrations of the symbols it displayed.
[3343] Thus joyfully was the festival of dedication celebrated in the
thirtieth year of our emperor's reign.
Footnotes
[3343] [Eusebius gives us no example of his application of Scripture
in this case. His commentator Valesius refers to Zeph. iii. 8 (LXX),
DiEUR touto hupomeinon me, legei Kurios, eis hemeran anastEURseos mou
eis marturion, and tells us that Cyril of Jerusalem, in his fourth
Homily, explains this passage in Zephaniah of the Martyrium, of
Basilica, which Constantine built on the spot of the Lord's
resurrection. Let any one examine the whole passage (allowing for the
mistake of one Hebrew word for another by the LXX), and say, if this
be a fair specimen, what we are to think of the Fathers of the fourth
century as interpreters of Scripture. See also Bk. 3, ch. 33,
note.--Bag.] "Interpreted pertinent passages from the prophets."--Str.
and Molz.
Chapter XLVI.--That Eusebius afterwards delivered his Description of
the Church of the Saviour, and a Tricennial Oration before Constantine
himself.
The structure of the church of our Saviour, the form of his sacred
cave, the splendor of the work itself, and the numberless offerings in
gold, and silver, and precious stones, I have described to the best of
my ability, and dedicated to the emperor in a separate treatise, which
on a fitting opportunity I shall append to this present work. I shall
add to it also that oration on his Tricennalia which shortly
afterwards, having traveled to the city which bears his name, I
delivered in the emperor's own presence. [3344] This was the second
opportunity afforded me of glorifying the Supreme God in the imperial
palace itself: and on this occasion my pious hearer evinced the
greatest joy, as he afterwards testified, when he entertained the
bishops then present, and loaded them with distinctions of every kind.
Footnotes
[3344] The Oration is appended to this work.
Chapter XLVII.--That the Council at Nicæa was held in the Twentieth,
the Dedication of the Church at Jerusalem in the Thirtieth, Year of
Constantine's Reign.
This second synod the emperor convened at Jerusalem, being the
greatest of which we have any knowledge, next to the first which he
had summoned at the famous Bithynian city. That indeed was a triumphal
assembly, held in the twentieth year of his reign, an occasion of
thanksgiving for victory over his enemies in the very city which bears
the name of victory. [3345] The present meeting added luster to the
thirtieth anniversary, during which the emperor dedicated the church
at the sepulchre of our Saviour, as a peace-offering to God, the giver
of all good.
Footnotes
[3345] Nicæa.
Chapter XLVIII.--That Constantine was displeased with one who praised
him excessively.
And now that all these ceremonies were completed, and the divine
qualities of the emperor's character continued to be the theme of
universal praise, one of God's ministers presumed so far as in his own
presence to pronounce him blessed, as having been counted worthy to
hold absolute and universal empire in this life, and as being destined
to share the empire of the Son of God in the world to come. These
words, however, Constantine heard with indignation, and forbade the
speaker to hold such language, exhorting him rather to pray earnestly
on his behalf, that whether in this life or in that which is to come,
he might be found worthy to be a servant of God. [3346]
Footnotes
[3346] Yet Eusebius himself in his Oration uses language almost as
obnoxious, and records that Constantine was much pleased with it. The
difference was probably one of gracefulness.
Chapter XLIX.--Marriage of his Son Constantius Cæsar.
On the completion of the thirtieth year of his reign he solemnized the
marriage of his second son, [3347] having concluded that of his
first-born long before. This was an occasion of great joy and
festivity, the emperor himself attending on his son at the ceremony,
and entertaining the guests of both sexes, the men and women in
distinct and separate companies, with sumptuous hospitality. Rich
presents likewise were liberally distributed among the cities and
people.
Footnotes
[3347] His second son by Fausta. Crispus seems now to be counted out.
This was not the famous Eusebia who was his second wife.
Chapter L.--Embassy and Presents from the Indians.
About this time ambassadors from the Indians, who inhabit the distant
regions of the East, arrived with presents consisting of many
varieties of brilliant precious stones, and animals differing in
species from those known to us. These offerings they presented to the
emperor, thus allowing that his sovereignty extended even to the
Indian Ocean, and that the princes of their country, who rendered
homage to him both by paintings and statues, acknowledged his imperial
and paramount authority. Thus the Eastern Indians now submitted to his
sway, as the Britons of the Western Ocean had done at the commencement
of his reign.
Chapter LI.--That Constantine divided the Empire between his Three
Sons, whom he had instructed in Politics and Religion.
Having thus established his power in the opposite extremities of the
world, he divided the whole extent of his dominions, as though he were
allotting a patrimonial inheritance to the dearest objects of his
regard, among his three sons. To the eldest he assigned his
grandfather's portion; to the second, the empire of the East; to the
third, the countries which lie between these two divisions. [3348] And
being desirous of furnishing his children with an inheritance truly
valuable and salutary to their souls, he had been careful to imbue
them with true religious principles, being himself their guide to the
knowledge of sacred things, and also appointing men of approved piety
to be their instructors. At the same time he assigned them the most
accomplished teachers of secular learning, by some of whom they were
taught the arts of war, while they were trained by others in
political, and by others again in legal science. To each moreover was
granted a truly royal retinue, consisting of infantry, spearmen, and
body guards, with every other kind of military force; commanded
respectively by captains, tribunes, and generals [3349] of whose
warlike skill and devotion to his sons the emperor had had previous
experience.
Footnotes
[3348] ["The younger Constantine was appointed to hold his court in
Gaul; and his brother Constantius exchanged that department, the
ancient patrimony of their father, for the more opulent, but less
martial, countries of the East. Italy, the Western Illyricum, and
Africa, were accustomed to revere Constans, the third of his sons, as
the representative of the great Constantine" (Gibbon, Decline and
Fall, ch. 18).--Bag.] Compare Prolegomena, under Life.
[3349] Centurions, generals, tribunes.
Chapter LII.--That after they had reached Man's Estate he was their
Guide in Piety.
As long as the Cæsars were of tender years, they were aided by
suitable advisers in the management of public affairs; but on their
arrival at the age of manhood their father's instructions alone
sufficed. When present he proposed to them his own example, and
admonished them to follow his pious course: in their absence he
furnished them by letter with rules of conduct suited to their
imperial station, the first and greatest of which was an exhortation
to value the knowledge and worship of the Sovereign Lord of all more
than wealth, nay, more than empire itself. At length he permitted them
to direct the public administration of the empire without control,
making it his first request that they would care for the interests of
the Church of God, and boldly profess themselves disciples of Christ.
Thus trained, and excited to obedience not so much by precept as by
their own voluntary desire for virtue, his sons more than fulfilled
the admonitions of their father, devoting their earnest attention to
the service of God, and observing the ordinances of the Church even in
the palace itself, with all the members of their households. [3350]
For their father's forethought had provided that all the attendants of
his son's should be Christians. And not only so, but the military
officers of highest rank, and those who had the control of public
business, were professors of the same faith: for the emperor placed
confidence in the fidelity of men devoted to the service of God, as in
a strong and sure defense. When our thrice blessed prince had
completed these arrangements, and thus secured order and tranquillity
throughout the empire, God, the dispenser of all blessings, judged it
to be the fitting time to translate him to a better inheritance, and
summoned him to pay the debt of nature.
Footnotes
[3350] The expression is over strong. Constantius, e.g., was not
baptized until just before his death.
Chapter LIII.--Having reigned about Thirty-Two Years, and lived above
Sixty, he still had a Sound Body.
He completed the time of his reign in two and thirty years, wanting a
few months and days, [3351] and his whole life extended to about twice
that period. At this age he still possessed a sound and vigorous body,
free from all blemish, and of more than youthful vivacity; a noble
mien, and strength equal to any exertion; so that he was able to join
in martial exercises, to ride, endure the fatigues of travel, engage
in battle, and erect trophies over his conquered enemies, besides
gaining those bloodless victories by which he was wont to triumph over
those who opposed him. [3352]
Footnotes
[3351] [In his Chronicon, Eusebius gives the more correct period of
thirty years and ten months. Constantine's reign began a.d. 306, and
his death took place a.d. 337.--Bag.] Compare Prolegomena, also
Clinton, Fasti Rom. an. 337.
[3352] Compare Prolegomena, under Character.
Chapter LIV.--Of those who abused His Extreme Benevolence for Avarice
and Hypocrisy.
In like manner his mental [3353] qualities reached the highest point
of human perfection. Indeed he was distinguished by every excellence
of character, but especially by benevolence; a virtue, however, which
subjected him to censure from many, in consequence of the baseness of
wicked men, who ascribed their own crimes to the emperor's
forbearance. In truth I can myself bear testimony to the grievous
evils which prevailed during these times; I mean the violence of
rapacious and unprincipled men, who preyed on all classes of society
alike, and the scandalous hypocrisy of those who crept into the
Church, and assumed the name and character of Christians. His own
benevolence and goodness of heart, the genuineness of his own faith,
and his truthfulness of character, induced the emperor to credit the
profession of these reputed Christians, who craftily preserved the
semblance of sincere affection for his person. The confidence he
reposed in such men sometimes forced him into conduct unworthy of
himself, of which envy took advantage to cloud in this respect the
luster of his character. [3354]
Footnotes
[3353] "Psychical qualities"--including more than intellectual.
[3354] Compare Prolegomena, Character. There is a striking touch of
naturalness in this passage which tells for the historical
trustworthiness of the biographer, and though exposing the fault of
the emperor yet gives a rather pleasing glimpse of his character.
Chapter LV.--Constantine employed himself in Composition of Various
Kinds to the Close of his Life.
These offenders, however, were soon over-taken by divine chastisement.
To return to our emperor. He had so thoroughly trained his mind in the
art of reasoning that he continued to the last to compose discourses
on various subjects, to deliver frequent orations in public, and to
instruct his hearers in the sacred doctrines of religion. He was also
habitually engaged in legislating both on political and military
questions; [3355] in short, in devising whatever might be conducive to
the general welfare of the human race. It is well worthy of remark,
that, very shortly before his departure, he pronounced a funeral
oration before his usual auditory, in which he spoke at length on the
immortality of the soul, the state of those who had persevered in a
life of godliness, and the blessings which God has laid up in store
for them that love him. On the other hand he made it appear by copious
and conclusive arguments what the end of those will be who have
pursued a contrary career, describing in vivid language the final ruin
of the ungodly. His powerful testimony on these subjects seemed so far
to touch the consciences of those around him, that one of the
self-imagined philosophers, of whom he asked his opinion of what he
had heard, bore testimony to the truth of his words, and accorded a
real, though reluctant, tribute of praise to the arguments by which he
had exposed the worship of a plurality of gods. By converse such as
this with his friends before his death, the emperor seemed as it were
to smooth and prepare the way for his transition to a happier life.
Footnotes
[3355] Compare remarks in Prolegomena, under Writings and Character.
Chapter LVI.--How he took Bishops with him on an Expedition against
the Persians, and took with him a Tent in the Form of a Church.
It is also worthy of record that about the time of which I am at
present writing, the emperor, having heard of an insurrection of some
barbarians in the East, observed that the conquest of this enemy was
still in store for him, and resolved on an expedition against the
Persians. Accordingly he proceeded at once to put his forces in
motion, at the same time communicating his intended march to the
bishops who happened to be at his court, some of whom he judged it
right to take with him as companions, and as needful coadjutors in the
service of God. They, on the other hand, cheerfully declared their
willingness to follow in his train, disclaiming any desire to leave
him, and engaging to battle with and for him by supplication to God on
his behalf. Full of joy at this answer to his request, he unfolded to
them his projected line of march; [3356] after which he caused a tent
of great splendor, representing in shape the figure of a church, to be
prepared for his own use in the approaching war. In this he intended
to unite with the bishops in offering prayers to the God from whom all
victory proceeds.
Footnotes
[3356] From this point to the end of the first sentence in ch. 58 is
bracketed by Heinichen.
Chapter LVII.--How he received an Embassy from the Persians and kept
the Night Vigil with others at the Feast of Easter.
In the meanwhile the Persians, hearing of the emperor's warlike
preparations, and not a little terrified at the prospect of an
engagement with his forces, dispatched an embassy to pray for
conditions of peace. These overtures the emperor, himself a sincere
lover of peace, at once accepted, and readily entered on friendly
relations with that people. At this time, the great festival of Easter
was at hand; on which occasion he rendered the tribute of his prayers
to God, and passed the night in watching with the rest.
Chapter LVIII.--Concerning the Building of a Church in Honor of the
Apostles at Constantinople.
After this he proceeded to erect a church in memory of the apostles,
in the city which bears his name. This building he carried to a vast
height, and brilliantly decorated by encasing it from the foundation
to the roof with marble slabs of various colors. He also formed the
inner roof of finely fretted work, and overlaid it throughout with
gold. The external covering, which protected the building from the
rain, was of brass instead of tiles; and this too was splendidly and
profusely adorned with gold, and reflected the sun's rays with a
brilliancy which dazzled the distant beholder. The dome was entirely
encompassed by a finely carved tracery, wrought in brass and gold.
Chapter LIX.--Farther Description of the same Church.
Such was the magnificence with which the emperor was pleased to
beautify this church. The building was surrounded by an open area of
great extent, the four sides of which were terminated by porticos
which enclosed the area and the church itself. Adjoining these
porticos were ranges of stately chambers, with baths and promenades,
and besides many apartments adapted to the use of those who had charge
of the place.
Chapter LX.--He also erected his own Sepulchral Monument in this
Church.
All these edifices the emperor consecrated with the desire of
perpetuating the memory of the apostles of our Saviour. He had,
however, another object in erecting this building: an object at first
unknown, but which afterwards became evident to all. He had in fact
made choice of this spot in the prospect of his own death,
anticipating with extraordinary fervor of faith that his body would
share their title with the apostles themselves, and that he should
thus even after death become the subject, with them, of the devotions
which should be performed to their honor in this place. He accordingly
caused twelve coffins to be set up in this church, like sacred pillars
in honor and memory of the apostolic number, in the center of which
his own was placed, having six of theirs on either side of it. Thus,
as I said, he had provided with prudent foresight an honorable
resting-place for his body after death, and, having long before
secretly formed this resolution, he now consecrated this church to the
apostles, believing that this tribute to their memory would be of no
small advantage to his own soul. Nor did God disappoint him of that
which he so ardently expected and desired. For after he had completed
the first services of the feast of Easter, and had passed this sacred
day of our Lord in a manner which made it an occasion of joy and
gladness to himself and to all; the God through whose aid he performed
all these acts, and whose zealous servant he continued to be even to
the end of life, was pleased at a happy time to translate him to a
better life.
Chapter LXI.--His Sickness at Helenopolis, and Prayers respecting his
Baptism.
At first he experienced some slight bodily indisposition, which was
soon followed by positive disease. In consequence of this he visited
the hot baths of his own city; and thence proceeded to that which bore
the name of his mother. Here he passed some time in the church of the
martyrs, and offered up supplications and prayers to God. Being at
length convinced that his life was drawing to a close, he felt the
time was come at which he should seek purification from sins of his
past career, firmly believing that whatever errors he had committed as
a mortal man, his soul would be purified from them through the
efficacy of the mystical words and the salutary waters of baptism.
[3357] Impressed with these thoughts, he poured forth his
supplications and confessions to God, kneeling on the pavement in the
church itself, in which he also now for the first time received the
imposition of hands with prayer. [3358] After this he proceeded as far
as the suburbs of Nicomedia, and there, having summoned the bishops to
meet him, addressed them in the following words.
Footnotes
[3357] Literally "salutary word of cleansing," but the paraphrase of
Bag. will stand well whichever of the readings, "salutary cleansing,"
or "salutary word of cleansing," is adopted.
[3358] [These words seem to prove that the emperor now first became a
catechumen. His postponement of baptism until his last illness (after
having stood forward so long as the public advocate and protector of
the Christian religion), and the superstitious reliance which he was
encouraged to place on the late performance of this "mysterious" rite,
afford an evidence of the melancholy obscuration of Christian truth at
the very time when Christianity was ostensibly becoming the religion
of the Roman Empire. There is probably too much truth in the following
remarks of Gibbon: "The pride of Constantine, who refused the
privileges of a catechumen, cannot easily be explained or excused: but
the delay of his baptism maybe justified by the maxims and practice of
ecclesiastical antiquity. The sacrament of baptism was supposed to
contain a full and absolute expiation of sin; and the soul was
instantly restored to its original purity, and entitled to the promise
of eternal salvation. Among the proselytes of Christianity, there were
many who judged it imprudent to precipitate a salutary rite, which
could not be repeated; to throw away an inestimable privilege, which
could never be recovered," &c. (Decline and Fall, ch. 20).--Bag.] On
the forms of admission to the catechumenate, compare Marriott,
Baptism, in Smith and Cheetham, Dict.
Chapter LXII.--Constantine's Appeal to the Bishops, requesting them to
confer upon him the Rite of Baptism.
"The time is arrived which I have long hoped for, with an earnest
desire and prayer that I might obtain the salvation of God. The hour
is come in which I too may have the blessing of that seal which
confers immortality; the hour in which I may receive the seal of
salvation. I had thought to do this in the waters of the river Jordan,
wherein our Saviour, for our example, is recorded to have been
baptized: but God, who knows what is expedient for us, is pleased that
I should receive this blessing here. Be it so, then, without delay:
[3359] for should it be his will who is Lord of life and death, that
my existence here should be prolonged, and should I be destined
henceforth to associate with the people of God, and unite with them in
prayer as a member of his Church, I will prescribe to myself from this
time such a course of life as befits his service." After he had thus
spoken, the prelates performed the sacred ceremonies in the usual
manner, and, having given him the necessary instructions, made him a
partaker of the mystic ordinance. Thus was Constantine the first of
all sovereigns who was regenerated and perfected in a church dedicated
to the martyrs of Christ; thus gifted with the Divine seal of baptism,
he rejoiced in spirit, was renewed, and filled with heavenly light:
his soul was gladdened by reason of the fervency of his faith, and
astonished at the manifestation of the power of God. At the conclusion
of the ceremony he arrayed himself in shining imperial vestments,
brilliant as the light, [3360] and reclined on a couch of the purest
white, refusing to clothe himself with the purple any more.
Footnotes
[3359] Or "no hesitation." On this clause a deal of controversy has
hinged. "No hesitation shall longer prevail" is the rendering of
Molz., and Keim (Uebertritt C. p. 1) similarly gives "let all
duplicity be banished." In the view of this translation, Constantine
had been hedging all his life, trying to be Christian to Christians
and heathen to heathen. The basis of the hypothesis is too slight for
it to have any weight in view of the overwhelming documentary evidence
of the frequent public professions of Christianity by Constantine, for
which see Prolegomena, under Character. Discussion of various points
relating to his baptism will be found under Literature, under the
names Busæus, Castelli, Dalhus, Frimelius Fuhrmann, Guidi, Halloix,
Hynitzsch, Jacobus of Sarug, Nicolai, Polus, Schelstrate, Scultetus,
Tentzel, Walther, Withof.
[3360] [It was customary for neophytes to wear white garments, which
they laid aside on the eighth day from their baptism.--Bag.]
Chapter LXIII.--How after his Baptism he rendered Thanks to God.
He then lifted his voice and poured forth a strain of thanksgiving to
God; after which he added these words. "Now I know that I am truly
blessed: now I feel assured that I am accounted worthy of immortality,
and am made a partaker of Divine light." He further expressed his
compassion for the unhappy condition of those who were strangers to
such blessings as he enjoyed: and when the tribunes and generals of
his army appeared in his presence with lamentations and tears at the
prospect of their bereavement, and with prayers that his days might
yet be prolonged, he assured them in reply that he was now in
possession of true life; that none but himself could know the value of
the blessings he had received; so that he was anxious rather to hasten
than to defer his departure to God. He then proceeded to complete the
needful arrangement of his affairs, bequeathing an annual donation to
the Roman inhabitants of his imperial city; apportioning the
inheritance of the empire, like a patrimonial estate, among his own
children; in short, making every disposition according to his own
pleasure. [3361]
Footnotes
[3361] The idea of ownership in empire which seems so strange in these
days of republics, and is disallowed even by theoretical monarchists,
seems to have been a most matter-of-course one in the mind of
Constantine, and Eusebius was a true imperialist regarding "tyranies"
and "republics" as in the same category. Whether it was by "divine
right" or "natural right" they were quite sure it was a "right," and
one to be freely exercised.
Chapter LXIV.--Constantine's Death at Noon on the Feast of Pentecost.
All these events occurred during a most important festival, I mean the
august and holy solemnity of Pentecost, which is distinguished by a
period of seven weeks, and sealed with that one day on which the holy
Scriptures attest, the ascension of our common Saviour into heaven,
and the descent of the Holy Spirit among men. In the course of this
feast the emperor received the privileges I have described; and on the
last day of all, which one might justly call the feast of feasts, he
was removed about mid-day to the presence of his God, leaving his
mortal remains to his fellow mortals, and carrying into fellowship
with God that part of his being which was capable of understanding and
loving him. [3362] Such was the close of Constantine's mortal life.
Let us now attend to the circumstances which followed this event.
Footnotes
[3362] Compare Prolegomena, Life, Last Years; also for age at time of
death, Prolegomena, p. 411, note.
Chapter LXV.--Lamentations of the Soldiery and their Officers.
Immediately the assembled spearmen and body-guard rent their garments,
and prostrated themselves on the ground, striking their heads, and
uttering lamentations and cries of sorrow, calling on their imperial
lord and master, or rather, like true children, on their father, while
their tribunes and centurions addressed him as their preserver,
protector, and benefactor. The rest of the soldiery also came in
respectful order to mourn as a flock the removal of their good
shepherd. The people meanwhile ran wildly throughout the city, some
expressing the inward sorrow of their hearts by loud cries, others
appearing confounded with grief: each mourning the event as a calamity
which had befallen himself, and bewailing his death as though they
felt themselves bereft of a blessing common alike to all.
Chapter LXVI.--Removal of the Body from Nicomedia to the Palace at
Constantinople.
After this the soldiers lifted the body from its couch, and laid it in
a golden coffin, which they enveloped in a covering of purple, and
removed to the city which was called by his own name. Here it was
placed in an elevated position in the principal chamber of the
imperial palace, and surrounded by candles burning in candlesticks of
gold, presenting a marvelous spectacle, and such as no one under the
light of the sun had ever seen on earth since the world itself began.
For in the central apartment of the imperial palace, the body of the
emperor lay in its elevated resting-place, arrayed in the symbols of
sovereignty, the diadem and purple robe, and encircled by a numerous
retinue of attendants, who watched around it incessantly night and
day.
Chapter LXVII.--He received the same Honors from the Counts and other
Officers as before his Death.
The military officers, too, of the highest rank, the counts, and the
whole order of magistrates, who had been accustomed to do obeisance to
their emperor before, continued to fulfill this duty without any
change, even after his death entering the chamber at the appointed
times, and saluting their coffined sovereign with bended knee, as
though he were still alive. After them the senators appeared, and all
who had been distinguished by any honorable office, and rendered the
same homage. These were followed by multitudes of every rank, who came
with their wives and children to witness the spectacle. These honors
continued to be rendered for a considerable time, the soldiers having
resolved thus to guard the body until his sons should arrive, and take
on themselves the conduct of their father's funeral. No mortal had
ever, like this blessed prince, continued to reign even after death,
and to receive the same homage as during his life: he only, of all who
have ever lived, obtained this reward from God: a suitable reward,
since he alone of all sovereigns had in all his actions honored the
Supreme God and his Christ, and God himself accordingly was pleased
that even his mortal remains should still retain imperial authority
among men; thus indicating to all who were not utterly devoid of
understanding the immortal and endless empire which his soul was
destined to enjoy. This was the course of events here.
Chapter LXVIII.--Resolution of the Army to confer thence-forward the
Title of Augustus on his Sons.
Meanwhile the tribunes selected from the troops under their command
those officers whose fidelity and zeal had long been known to the
emperor, and dispatched them to the Cæsars with intelligence of the
late event. This service they accordingly performed. As soon, however,
as the soldiery throughout the provinces received the tidings of the
emperor's decease, they all, as if by a supernatural impulse, resolved
with one consent, as though their great emperor had been yet alive, to
acknowledge none other than his sons as sovereigns of the Roman world:
and these they soon after determined should no longer retain the name
of Cæsar, but should each be honored with the title of Augustus, a
name which indicates the highest supremacy of imperial power. Such
were the measures adopted by the army; and these resolutions they
communicated to each other by letter, so that the unanimous desire of
the legions became known at the same point of time throughout the
whole extent of the empire.
Chapter LXIX.--Mourning for Constantine at Rome; and the Honor paid
him there through Paintings after his Death.
On the arrival of the news of the emperor's death in the imperial
city, the Roman senate and people felt the announcement as the
heaviest and most afflictive of all calamities, and gave themselves up
to an excess of grief. The baths and markets were closed, the public
spectacles, and all other recreations in which men of leisure are
accustomed to indulge, were interrupted. Those who had erewhile lived
in luxurious ease, now walked the streets in gloomy sadness, while all
united in blessing the name of the deceased, as the one who was dear
to God, and truly worthy of the imperial dignity. Nor was their sorrow
expressed only in words: they proceeded also to honor him, by the
dedication of paintings to his memory, with the same respect as before
his death. The design of these pictures embodied a representation of
heaven itself, and depicted the emperor reposing in an ethereal
mansion above the celestial vault. They too declared his sons alone to
be emperors and Augusti, and begged with earnest entreaty that they
might be permitted to receive the body of their emperor, and perform
his obsequies in the imperial city.
Chapter LXX.--His Burial by his Son Constantius at Constantinople.
Thus did they there testify their respect for the memory of him who
had been honored by God. The second of his sons, however, who had by
this time arrived, proceeded to celebrate his father's funeral in the
city which bears his name, himself heading the procession, which was
preceded by detachments of soldiers in military array, and followed by
vast multitudes, the body itself being surrounded by companies of
spearmen and heavy armed infantry. On the arrival of the procession at
the church dedicated to the apostles of our Saviour, the coffin was
there entombed. Such honor did the youthful emperor Constantius render
to his deceased parent, both by his presence, and by the due
performance of this sacred ceremony.
Chapter LXXI.--Sacred Service in the Church of the Apostles on the
Occasion of Constantine's Funeral.
As soon as [Constantius] had withdrawn himself with the military
train, the ministers of God came forward, with the multitude and the
whole congregation of the faithful, and performed the rites of Divine
worship with prayer. At the same time the tribute of their praises was
given to the character of this blessed prince, whose body rested on a
lofty and conspicuous monument, and the whole multitude united with
the priests of God in offering prayers for his soul, not without
tears,--nay, rather with much weeping; thus performing an office
consonant with the desires of the pious deceased. [3363] In this
respect also the favor of God was manifested to his servant, in that
he not only bequeathed the succession of the empire to his own beloved
sons, but that the earthly tabernacle of his thrice blessed soul,
according to his own earnest wish, was permitted to share the monument
of the apostles; was associated with the honor of their name, and with
that of the people of God; was honored by the performance of the
sacred ordinances and mystic service; and enjoyed a participation in
the prayers of the saints. Thus, too, he continued to possess imperial
power even after death, controlling, as though with renovated life, a
universal dominion, and retaining in his own name, as Victor, Maximus,
Augustus, the sovereignty of the Roman world. [3364]
Footnotes
[3363] [Alluding to his desire of being buried in the church of the
apostles, and sharing their honors, as noticed in ch. 60.--Bag.]
[3364] [It appears that an interregnum of about three months took
place, during which all the laws and edicts continued to be issued in
the name of Constantine, as before his death.--Bag.]
Chapter LXXII.--Of the Phoenix.
We cannot compare him with that bird of Egypt, the only one, as they
say, of its kind, which dies, self-sacrificed, in the midst of
aromatic perfumes, and, rising from its own ashes with new life, soars
aloft in the same form which it had before. Rather did he resemble his
Saviour, who, as the sown corn which is multiplied from a single
grain, had yielded abundant increase through the blessing of God, and
had overspread the whole world with his fruit. Even so did our thrice
blessed prince become multiplied, as it were, through the succession
of his sons. His statue was erected along with theirs in every
province; and the name of Constantine was owned and honored even after
the close of his mortal life.
Chapter LXXIII.--How Constantine is represented on Coins in the Act of
ascending to Heaven.
A coinage was also struck which bore the following device. On one side
appeared the figure of our blessed prince, with the head closely
veiled: the reverse exhibited him sitting as a charioteer, drawn by
four horses, with a hand stretched downward from above to receive him
up to heaven.
Chapter LXXIV.--The God whom he had honored deservedly honored him in
Return.
Such are the proofs by which the Supreme God has made it manifest to
us, in the person of Constantine, who alone of all sovereigns had
openly professed the Christian faith, how great a difference he
perceives between those whose privilege it is to worship him and his
Christ, and those who have chosen the contrary part, who provoked his
enmity by daring to assail his Church, and whose calamitous end, in
every instance, afforded tokens of his displeasure, as manifestly as
the death of Constantine conveyed to all men an evident assurance of
his Divine love.
Chapter LXXV.--He surpassed all Preceding Emperors in Devotion to God.
Standing, as he did, alone and pre-eminent among the Roman emperors as
a worshiper of God; alone as the bold proclaimer to all men of the
doctrine of Christ; having alone rendered honor, as none before him
had ever done, to his Church; having alone abolished utterly the error
of polytheism, and discountenanced idolatry in every form: so, alone
among them both during life and after death, was he accounted worthy
of such honors as none can say have been attained to by any other; so
that no one, whether Greek or Barbarian, nay, of the ancient Romans
themselves, has ever been presented to us as worthy of comparison with
him. [3365]
Footnotes
[3365] The sharp sarcasms of Julian's Cæsars seem almost to have taken
their text from this challenge. He marshals the great emperors before
the gods, where each presents his claim to greatness. Constantine is
greatly ridiculed, and yet to choose between Julian and Eusebius, if
regard is had to Constantine's real effect on world history, Eusebius
is the truer judge, and is at least not so far wrong that his
superlative enthusiasm for his imperial friend cannot be readily
pardoned.
The Oration of the emperor constantine,
which he addressed "to the assembly of the saints."
Chapter I.--Preliminary Remarks on the Feast of Easter: and how the
Word of God, having conferred Manifold Benefits on Mankind, was
betrayed by his Beneficiaries.
That light which far outshines the day and sun, first pledge of
resurrection, and renovation of bodies long since dissolved, [3366]
the divine token [3367] of promise, the path which leads to
everlasting life--in a word, the day of the Passion--is arrived, best
beloved doctors, and ye, my friends who are assembled here, ye blessed
multitudes, who worship him who is the author of all worship, and
praise him continually with heart and voice, according to the precepts
of his holy word. But thou, Nature, [3368] parent of all things, what
blessing like to this hast thou ever accomplished for mankind? Nay
rather, what is in any sense thy workmanship, since he who formed the
universe is himself the author of thy being? For it is he who has
arrayed thee in thy beauty; and the beauty of Nature is life according
to Nature's laws. But principles quite opposed to Nature have mightily
prevailed; in that men have agreed in withholding his rightful worship
from the Lord of all, believing that the order of the universe
depended, not on his providence, but, on the blind uncertainty of
chance: and this notwithstanding the clearest announcement of the
truth by his inspired prophets, whose words should have claimed
belief, but were in every way resisted by that impious wickedness
which hates the light of truth, and loves the obscure mazes of
darkness. Nor was this error unaccompanied by violence and cruelty,
especially in that the will of princes encouraged the blind
impetuosity of the multitude, or rather itself led the way in the
career of reckless folly. Such principles as these, confirmed by the
practice of many generations, became the source of terrible evils in
those early times: but no sooner had the radiance of the Saviour's
presence appeared, than justice took the place of wrong, a calm
succeeded the confusion of the storm, and the predictions of the
prophets were all fulfilled. For after he had enlightened the world by
the glorious discretion and purity of his character, and had ascended
to the mansions of his father's house, he founded his Church on earth,
as a holy temple of virtue, an immortal, imperishable temple, wherein
the worship due to the Supreme Father and to himself should be piously
performed. But what did the insane malice of the nations hereupon
devise? Their effort was to reject the grace of Christ, and to ruin
that Church which was ordained for the salvation of all, though they
thus ensured the overthrow of their own superstition. [3369] Once more
then unholy sedition, once more war and strife prevailed, with
stiff-neckedness, luxurious riot, and that craving for wealth which
now soothes its victims with specious hope, now strikes them with
groundless fear; a craving which is contrary to nature, and the very
characteristic of Vice herself. Let her, however, lie prostrate in the
dust, and own the victorious power of Virtue; and let her rend and
tear herself, as well she may, in the bitterness of repentance. But
let us now proceed to speak of topics which pertain to the Divine
doctrine.
Footnotes
[3366] Or "once suffering."
[3367] hermaiou, "gift of Hermes"; i.e. providential good-fortune.
Valesius wrongly conjectures herma, "foundation" of promise.
[3368] Valesius, followed by various translators, substitutes "God"
for "Nature." But all ms. authority, and the context as well, is
against.
[3369] 1709, Molz., Vales., Cous., render "substitute in place thereof
their own superstition."
Chapter II.--An Appeal to the Church and to his Hearers to pardon and
correct the Errors of His Speech.
Hear then, thou master [3370] of the ship, possessor of virgin purity,
and thou Church, the cherisher of tender and inexperienced age,
guardian of truth and gentleness, through whose perennial fountain the
stream [3371] of salvation flows! Be ye also indulgent, my hearers,
who worship God sincerely, and are, therefore, the objects of his
care: attending, not to the language, but to the truth of what is
said; not to him who speaks, but rather to the pious zeal which
hallows his discourse! For what will be the use of words when the real
purpose of the speaker remains unknown? It may be, indeed, that I
essay great things; the love of God which animates my soul, a love
which overpowers natural reserve, is my plea for the bold attempt. On
you, then, I call, who are best instructed in the mysteries of God, to
aid me with your counsel, to follow me with your thoughts, and correct
whatever shall savor of error in my words, expecting no display of
perfect knowledge, but graciously accepting the sincerity of my
endeavor. And may the Spirit of the Father and the Son accord his
mighty aid, while I utter the words which he shall suggest to speech
or thought. [3372] For if any one, whether in the practice of
eloquence, or any other art, expects to produce a finished work
without the help of God, both the author and his efforts will be found
alike imperfect; while he has no cause to fear, no room for
discouragement, [3373] who has once been blessed with the inspiration
of Heaven. Wherefore asking your indulgence for the length of this
preface, let us attempt the theme in its utmost scope. [3374]
Footnotes
[3370] [The bishop who is thus metaphorically addressed as the guide
and controller of the Church.--Bag.]
[3371] Some mss. read poma, "draught."
[3372] "I read aute phrEURsei...but regarding phrEURsei as derived not
from the verb phrEURzein, but from the noun phrEURsis."--Hein.
[3373] "Ought not to shrink or to be neglectful."
[3374] Valesius, followed by 1709 and substantially by Bag., omitting
pros, renders "enter upon the head and principal matter of our
design." Hein. retains pros, and like Molz. renders "proceed, as well
as I may, to my theme." He means rather that having God's help he will
not fear to "essay great things."
Chapter III.--That God is the Father of the Word, and the Creator of
all Things; and that Material Objects could not continue to exist,
were their Causes Various.
God, who is ever above all existence, and the good which all things
desire, has no origin, and therefore no beginning, being himself the
originator [3375] of all things which receive existence. But he who
proceeds from him is again united to him; and this separation from and
union with him is not local, but intellectual in its character. For
this generation was accompanied by no diminution of the Father's
substance (as in the case of generation by seed); but by the
determining act of foreknowledge God manifested a Saviour presiding
over [3376] this sensible world, and all created things therein.
[3377] From hence, then, is the source of existence and life to all
things which are within the compass of this world; hence proceed the
soul, and every sense; [3378] hence those organs through which the
sense-perceptions are perfected. What, then, is the object of this
argument? To prove that there is One director of all things that
exist, and that all things, whether in heaven or on earth, both
natural and organized bodies, [3379] are subject to his single
sovereignty. For if the dominion of these things, numberless as they
are, were in the hands, not of one but of many, there must be a
partition and distribution of the elements, and the old fables would
be true; [3380] jealousy, too, and ambition, striving for superior
power, would destroy the harmonious concord of the whole, while each
of the many masters would regulate in a manner different from the rest
the portion subject to his control. The fact, however, that this
universal order is ever one and the same, is the proof that it is
under the care of a superior power, and that its origin cannot be
ascribed to chance. Else how could the author of universal nature ever
be known? To whom first, or last, could prayers and supplications be
addressed? Whom could I choose [3381] as the object of my worship,
without being guilty of impiety towards the rest? Again, if haply I
desired to obtain some temporal blessing, should I not, while
expressing my gratitude to the Power who favored my request, convey a
reproach to him who opposed it? Or to whom should I pray, when
desiring to know the cause of my calamity, and to obtain deliverance?
Or let us suppose that the answer is given by oracles and prophecies,
but that the case is not within the scope of their authority, being
the province of some other deity. [3382] Where, then, is mercy? where
is the provident care of God for the human race? Unless, indeed, some
more benevolent Power, assuming a hostile attitude against another who
has no such feeling, be disposed to accord me his protection. Hence
anger, discords, mutual censure, and finally universal confusion,
would ensue, while each departed from his proper sphere of action,
dissatisfied, through ambitious love of power, with his allotted
portion. What, then, would be the result of these things? Surely this
discord among the heavenly powers would prove destructive to the
interests of earth: the orderly alternation of times and seasons would
disappear; the successive productions of the earth would be enjoyed no
more: the day itself, and the repose of night which follows it, would
cease to be. But enough on this subject: let us once more resume that
species of reasoning which admits of no reply.
Footnotes
[3375] "Beginning."
[3376] Presiding "overseer," "president," or "ruler." It is the one
who has charge of games or ships or public works, &c.
[3377] Cf. John i. 3, 13, 14, and Eph. i. 10. There is the greatest
variety in the rendering of this passage, of which Bag.'s is the
worst. The writer draws here on a philosophy of the Logos, which
recognizes the second person of the Trinity as the creator and head of
created things. The free version of Cousin gives the best flavor of
the idea. "He was produced by the inexhaustible fecundity of his
eternal mind to preside over the creation and government of this
visible world." A better translation waits on a better exposition of
the doctrine of the Logos and its history.
[3378] Molz.renders "und die Organe, mit Hilfe derer das Wahrgenommene
innerlich zur Idee erhoben wird."
[3379] Chr.substantially "natural and artificial"; Molz. "lifeless and
live"; perhaps "inorganic and organic" is meant.
[3380] [Alluding to the fabulous division of the world between the
brothers Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto. Valesius in loc.--Bag.] Or
rather Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades. Zeus had the heavens, Poseidon the
sea, and Hades the underworld, while the earth remained "with high
Olympus, common to us all"--a fruitful source of dissension. Cf.
Homer, Il. XV. 184-195, ed. Doederlein, 2 (1864), p. 64-65; tr.
Bryant, XV. ll. 227-245.
[3381] A possible reading here is exairetos, i.e. take as the chief
object, &c.--Vales. and Hein.
[3382] Valesius remarks that many instances are recorded where the
oracle of Apollo replied to those who consulted him that Bacchus or
Saturn must be placated in order to their liberation.
Chapter IV.--On the Error of Idolatrous Worship.
Whatever has had a beginning, has also an end. Now that which is a
beginning in respect of time, is called a generation: and whatever is
by generation is subject to corruption, and its beauty [3383] is
impaired by the lapse of time. How, then, can they whose origin is
from corruptible generation, be immortal? Again, this supposition has
gained credit with the ignorant multitude, that marriages, and the
birth of children, are usual among the gods. Granting, then, such
offspring to be immortal, and continually produced, the race must of
necessity multiply to excess: and if this were so, where is the
heaven, or the earth, which could contain so vast and still increasing
a multitude of gods? But what shall we say of those men who represent
these celestial beings as joined in incestuous union with their sister
goddesses, and charge them with adultery and impurity? [3384] We
declare, further, with all confidence, that the very honors and
worship which these deities receive from men are accompanied by acts
of wantonness and profligacy. Once more; the experienced and skillful
sculptor, having formed the conception of his design, perfects his
work according to the rules of art; and in a little while, as if
forgetful of himself, idolizes his own creation, and adores it as an
immortal god, while yet he admits that himself, the author and maker
of the image, is a mortal man. Nay, they even show the graves and
monuments of those whom they deem immortal, and bestow divine honors
on the dead: not knowing that that which is truly blessed and
incorruptible needs no distinction which perishable men can give: for
that Being, who is seen by the mental eye, and conceived by the
intellect alone, requires to be distinguished by no external form, and
admits no figure to represent its character and likeness. But the
honors of which we speak are given to those who have yielded to the
power of death: they once were men, and tenants, while they lived, of
a mortal body.
Footnotes
[3383] "Form."
[3384] A favorite theme of the Christian apologists. Cf. long list
given in the Clementine Recognitions, X. 22.
Chapter V.--That Christ, the Son of God, created All Things, and has
appointed to Every Thing the Term of its Existence.
But why do I defile my tongue with unhallowed words, when my object is
to sound the praises of the true God? Rather let me cleanse myself, as
it were, from this bitter draught by the pure stream which flows from
the everlasting fountain of the virtue [3385] of that God who is the
object of my praise. Be it my special province to glorify Christ, as
well by the actions of my life, as by that thanksgiving which is due
to him for the manifold and signal blessings which he has bestowed. I
affirm, therefore, that he [3386] has laid the foundations of this
universe; and conceived the race of men, ordaining these things by his
word. And immediately he transferred our newly created parents
(ignorant at first, according to his will, of good and evil) to a
happy region, abounding in flowers and fruits of every kind. [3387] At
length, however, he appointed them a seat on earth befitting creatures
endued with reason; and then unfolded to their faculties, as
intelligent beings, the knowledge of good and evil. Then, too, he bade
the race increase; and each healthy region of the world, as far as the
bounds of the circumambient ocean, became the dwelling-place of men;
while with this increase of numbers the invention of the useful arts
went hand in hand. Meantime the various species of inferior [3388]
animals increased in due proportion, each kind discovering some
characteristic quality, the special gift of nature: the tame
distinguished by gentleness and obedience to man; the wild by strength
and swiftness, and an instinctive foresight which warned them to
escape from peril. The gentler animals he placed entirely beneath
man's protecting care, but entailed on him the necessity of strife
with those of fiercer nature. He next created the feathered race,
manifold in number, diverse in character and habits; brilliant with
every variety of color, and endued with native powers of melody.
Finally, having arranged with wise discrimination whatever else the
compass of this world contains, and having assigned to every creature
the stated term of its existence, he thus completed the beautiful
order of the perfect whole.
Footnotes
[3385] Or "perfections."
[3386] "To be referred not to the preceding `Christ' but...the supreme
God."--Hein. (?).
[3387] [Constantine seems to have supposed the Paradise of our first
parents to be somewhere apart from this earth. In this fanciful idea,
which is obviously indefensible from Scripture he is countenanced by
the opinions of Tertullian, Tatian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen,
Valentinian, and Jerome, some of whom placed it in or above the third
heaven, others in the fourth, others again in a world superior to the
present, &c. See the note of Valesius, who quotes from some of these
Fathers. In reference to what follows, we may ask, Was Constantine
acquainted with, or does he avoid noticing, the circumstances of the
fall?--Bag.] Ans. Constantine like many another to our own day seems
to regard the "fall" as a fall upwards--that complacent optimism which
ignores Scripture and Schopenhauer alike.
[3388] Without the logos, i.e. inarticulate or (as here) irrational.
Chapter VI.--The Falsity of the General Opinion respecting Fate [3389]
is proved by the Consideration of Human Laws, and by the Works of
Creation, the Course of which is not Fortuitous, but according to an
Orderly Arrangement which evinces the Design of the Creator.
The great majority, however, in their folly, ascribe the regulation of
the universe to nature, while some imagine fate, or accident, [3390]
to be the cause. With regard to those who attribute the control of all
things to fate, they know not that in using this term they utter a
mere word, but designate no active power, nor anything which has real
and substantial existence. For what can this fate be, considered in
itself, if nature be the first cause of all things? Or what shall we
suppose nature itself to be, if the law of fate be inviolable? Indeed,
the very assertion that there is a law of fate implies that such law
is the work of a legislator: if, therefore, fate itself be a law, it
must be a law devised by God. All things, therefore, are subject to
God, and nothing is beyond the sphere of his power. If it be said that
fate is the will [3391] of God, and is so considered, we admit the
fact. But in what respect do justice, [3392] or self-control, [3393]
or the other virtues, depend on fate? From whence, if so, do their
contraries, as injustice and intemperance, proceed? For vice has its
origin from nature, not from fate; and virtue is the due regulation of
natural character and disposition. But, granting that the varied
results of actions, whether right or erroneous in themselves, depend
on fortune or fate: in what sense can the general principle of
justice, [3394] the principle of rendering to every one his due, be
ascribed to fate? [3395] Or how can it be said that laws,
encouragements to virtue and dissuasives from what is evil, praise,
blame, punishment, in short whatever operates as a motive to virtue,
and deters from the practice of vice, derive their origin from fortune
or accident, and not rather from that of justice, [3396] which is a
characteristic attribute of the God of providence? For the events
which befall men are consequent upon the tenor of their lives. Hence
pestilence or sedition, famine and plenty, succeed in turn, declaring
plainly and emphatically that all these things are regulated with
reference to our course of life. For the Divine Being delights in
goodness, but turns with aversion from all impiety; looks with
acceptance on the humble spirit, but abhors presumption, and that
pride which exalts itself above what becomes a creature. And though
the proofs of these truths are clear and manifest to our sight, they
appear in a still stronger light, when we collect, and as it were
concentrate our thoughts within ourselves, and ponder their causes
with deep attention. I say, then, that it becomes us to lead a life of
modesty and gentleness, not suffering our thoughts to rise proudly
above our natural condition, and ever mindful that God is near us, and
is the observer of all our actions. But let us still farther test the
truth of the proposition, that the order of the universe depends on
chance [3397] or accident. [3398] Are we then to suppose that the
stars and other heavenly bodies, the earth and sea, fire and wind,
water and air, the succession of the seasons, the recurrence of summer
and winter, that all these have an undesigned and fortuitous
existence, and not rather that they proceed from the creative hand of
God? Some, indeed, are so senseless as to say that most of these
things have been devised by mankind because of their need of them. Let
it be admitted that this opinion has a semblance of reason in regard
to earthly and corruptible things (though Nature herself supplies
every good with a lavish hand); yet can we believe that things which
are immortal and unchangeable are the inventions of men? These,
indeed, and all things else which are beyond the reach of our senses,
and comprehended by the intellect [3399] alone, receive their being,
not from the material life of man, but from the intellectual and
eternal essence of God. Again, the orderly arrangement of these things
is the work of his providence: for instance, that the day, deriving
radiance from the sun, is bright; that night succeeds his setting, and
the starry host [3400] by which night itself is redeemed from total
darkness. And what shall we say of the moon, which when most distant
from, and opposite to the sun, is filled with light, but wanes in
proportion to the nearness of her approach to him? Do not these things
manifestly evince the intelligence [3401] and sagacious wisdom of God?
Add to this that needful warmth of the solar rays which ripens the
fruits of the earth; the currents of wind, so conducive to the
fertility of the seasons; the cool and refreshing showers; and the
harmony of all these things in accordance with which all are
reasonably and systematically conducted: lastly, the everlasting order
of the planets, which return to the self-same place at their appointed
times: are not all these, as well as the perfect ministry of the
stars, obedient to a divine law, evident proofs of the ordinance
[3402] of God? Again, do the mountain heights, the deep and hollow
valleys, the level and extensive plains, useful as they are, as well
as pleasing to the eye, appear to exist independently of the will of
God? Or do not the proportion and alternate succession of land and
water, serviceable, the one for husbandry, the other for the transport
of such foreign products as we need, afford a clear demonstration of
his exact and proportionate providential care? For instance, the
mountains contain a store of water, which the level ground receives,
and after imbibing sufficient for the renovation of the soil, sends
forth the residue into the sea, and the sea in turn passes it onward
to the ocean. And still we dare to say that all these things happen by
chance [3403] and accident; unable though we be to show by what shape
or form this chance is characterized; a thing which has no foundation
either in intellect or sense existence; which rings in our ears as the
mere sound of an unsubstantial name!
Footnotes
[3389] For a full discussion of various definitions and usage of the
word Fate (he eiriarmene) in Greek philosophy, compare Zeller, Stoics,
Epicureans, and Sceptics (Lond. 1880), p. 170-171, notes.
[3390] automaton. The usual word for chance or accident is tuche.
These may be here, as is often the case, simple synonyms, but both
words are used in the same phrase later in such way as to suggest that
tuche is parallel with "fate" rather than "chance" in the author's
mind. automaton seems to be used of "self-originating," tuche of
originating from some unknown cause or without any cause. The former
is the modern, self-energized,
"lift-yourselves-by-your-own-boot-straps" evolution. The latter is a
form of agnosticism. Aristotle (Metaph. 10. 8) defines chance (tuche)
as a "cause by accident" (sumbebekos), or more literally
"coincidence," which is substantially what Janet (Final Causes, 1878,
p. 19) means by defining chance as the coincidence of causes. At the
end of the same Chapter Aristotle uses automaton in contrast with
tuche--"tuche or even automaton," which has been rendered (M'Mahon)
"chance or even spontaneity." In modern phrase those who hold these
three various views of the universe might be characterized as
"material evolutionists," "transcendental idealists," and
"philosophical (or perhaps `agnostic') evolutionists."
[3391] i.e. "plan."
[3392] dikaiosune, better "righteousness," "correctness of thinking,
feeling, and acting" (Thayer, Lex. p. 149). So its opposite mentioned
below (adikia) is better "unrighteousness," as generally in the
revised English version of the N.T., "mammon of unrighteousness" (Luke
xvi. 9, e.g.). The word means more than our "just," "more," as
Socrates said (Plat. Rep. 1. 331), "than to speak the truth and pay
your debts." Righteousness is the better translation, but we are met
with the difficulty that it has generally been rendered justice in
translations of the philosophers.
[3393] sophrosune, temperance, vs. akolasia, intemperance, below;
soundness of mind vs. insanity (cf. use in Acts xxvi. 25, and of verb
in Mark v. 15; Luke viii. 35; also use in Plato, Rep. 332, &c.);
self-control vs. unbridled desire. This same contrast of sophrosune
and akolasia is found in Aristotle, Eth. 2, vii. 3; 7, vii. I; and
especially 7, ix. 5.
[3394] ti dikaion, not dikaiosune
[3395] This is very free, and follows translation of Valesius and 1709
text. 1709 marg. translates more literally, "But either crimes, or, on
the other hand, brave performances, which are [the property] of a good
and right purpose of mind, if they happen sometimes one way, at others
another," and Molz. somewhat similarly. It is possible that it should
read: "Granted that either evil actions proceeding from a good and
upright will, or contrariwise, good actions [from an evil will] which
issue directly contrary [to their own nature or to just expectation]
may be ascribed to chance or fate, how can the right," &c.
[3396] dikaiosune
[3397] tuche.
[3398] automaton
[3399] noos was not narrowed to the mere intellectual functions.
"Intellectual" is not to be taken of brain function only, but of brain
and heart,--real knowing, as against the "intellectuation" which men
nowadays try to force the word "know" to mean.
[3400] "Quire of the stars," 1709.
[3401] The "logos endiEURthetos" of Philo, frequent in Alexandrian
theologians. It is the unuttered thought vs. the expressed word.
[3402] Fore-ordination, or plan.
[3403] automaton
Chapter VII.--In regard to Things above our Comprehension, we should
glorify the Creator's Wisdom, and attribute their Causes to him alone,
and not to Chance.
In fact, this word "chance" is the expression of men who think in
haphazard and illogical fashion; who are unable to understand the
causes of these things, and who, owing to the feebleness of their own
apprehensions, conceive that those things for which they cannot assign
a reason, are ordered without reason. There are, unquestionably, some
things which possess wonderful natural properties, and the full
apprehension of which is very difficult: for example, the nature of
hot springs. For no one can easily explain the cause of so powerful a
fire; and it is indeed surprising that though surrounded on all sides
by a body of cold water, it loses none of its native heat. These
phenomena appear to be of rare occurrence throughout the world, being
intended, I am persuaded, to afford to mankind convincing evidence of
the power of that Providence which ordains that two directly opposite
natures, heat and cold, should thus proceed from the self-same source.
Many indeed, yea, numberless, are the gifts which God has bestowed for
the comfort and enjoyment of man; and of these the fruit of the
olive-tree and the vine deserve especial notice; the one for its power
of renovating and cheering the soul, [3404] the other because it
ministers to our enjoyment, and is likewise adapted for the cure of
bodily disease. Marvelous, too, is the course of rivers, flowing night
and day with unceasing motion, and presenting a type of ever-flowing,
never-ceasing life: and equally wonderful is the alternate succession
of day and night.
Footnotes
[3404] psuches = "soul." In the absence of a proper Biblical
psychology the word has been most sadly abused in translations. The
only way back to a proper conception of the words "spirit" and "soul"
and "life," &c., is to re-establish a uniform rendering for them. It
is as bad as the rendering of our English version, where nephesk (=
psuche) is rendered "life."
Chapter VIII.--That God bestows an Abundant Supply of whatever is
suited to the Wants of Man, and ministers but sparingly to his
Pleasures; in Both Cases with a View to his Advantage.
Let what has been said suffice to prove that nothing exists without
reason and intelligence, and that reason itself and providence are of
God. It is he who has also distributed the metals, as gold, silver,
copper, and the rest, in due proportion; ordaining an abundant supply
of those which would be most needed and generally employed, while he
dispensed those which serve the purposes merely of pleasure in
adornment of luxury with a liberal and yet a sparing hand, holding a
mean between parsimony and profusion. For the searchers for metals,
were those which are employed for ornament procured in equal abundance
with the rest, would be impelled by avarice to despise and neglect to
gather those which, like iron or copper, are serviceable for
husbandry, or house-building, or the equipment of ships; and would
care for those only which conduce to luxury and a superfluous excess
of wealth. Hence it is, as they say, that the search for gold and
silver is far more difficult and laborious than that for any other
metals, the violence of the toil thus acting as a counterpoise to the
violence of the desire. And how many instances might still further be
enumerated of the workings of that Divine Providence which, in all the
gifts which it has so unsparingly conferred upon us, plainly urges us
to the practice of self-control and all other virtues, and leads us
away from unbefitting covetousness! To trace the secret reasons of all
these things is indeed a task which exceeds the power of human
faculties. For how can the intellect of a frail and perishable being
arrive at the knowledge of perfect truth, or apprehend in its purity
the counsel of God from the beginning?
Chapter IX.--Of the Philosophers, who fell into Mistaken Notions, and
Some of them into Danger, by their Desire of Universal
Knowledge.--Also of the Doctrines of Plato.
We ought, therefore, to aim at objects which are within our power, and
exceed not the capacities of our nature. For the persuasive influence
of argument has a tendency to draw most of us away from the truth of
things, which has happened to many philosophers, who have employed
themselves in reasoning, and the study of natural science, and who, as
often as the magnitude of the subject surpasses their powers of
investigation, adopt various devices for obscuring the truth. Hence
their diversities of judgment, and contentious opposition to each
others' doctrines, and this notwithstanding their pretensions to
wisdom. Hence, too, popular commotions have arisen, and severe
sentences, passed by those in power, apprehensive of the overthrow of
hereditary institutions, have proved destructive to many of the
disputants themselves. Socrates, for example, elated by his skill in
argumentation, indulging his power of making the worse appear the
better reason, [3405] and playing continually with the subtleties of
controversy, fell a victim to the slander of his own countrymen and
fellow-citizens. Pythagoras, too, who laid special claim to the
virtues of silence and self-control, was convicted of falsehood. For
he declared to the Italians that the doctrines which he had received
during his travels in Egypt, and which had long before been divulged
by the priests of that nation, were a personal revelation to himself
from God. Lastly, Plato himself, the gentlest and most refined of all,
who first essayed to draw men's thoughts from sensible to intellectual
and eternal objects, and taught them to aspire to sublimer
speculations, in the first place declared, with truth, a God exalted
above every essence, but to him he added also a second, distinguishing
them numerically as two, though both possessing one perfection, and
the being of the second Deity proceeding from [3406] the first. For he
is the creator and controller of the universe, and evidently supreme:
while the second, as the obedient agent of his commands, refers the
origin of all creation to him as the cause. In accordance, therefore,
with the soundest reason, we may say that there is one Being whose
care and providence are over all things, even God the Word, who has
ordered all things; but the Word being God himself is also the Son of
God. For by what name can we designate him except by this title of the
Son, without falling into the most grievous error? For the Father of
all things is properly considered the Father of his own Word. Thus
far, then, Plato's sentiments were sound; but in what follows he
appears to have wandered from the truth, in that he introduces a
plurality of gods, to each of whom he assigns specific forms. And this
has given occasion to still greater error among the unthinking portion
of mankind, who pay no regard to the providence of the Supreme God,
but worship images of their own devising, made in the likeness of men
or other living beings. Hence it appears that the transcendent nature
and admirable learning of this philosopher, tinged as they were with
such errors as these, were by no means free from impurity and alloy.
And yet he seems to me to retract, and correct his own words, when he
plainly declares that a rational soul is the breath [3407] of God, and
divides all things into two classes, intellectual and sensible: [the
one simple, the other] [3408] consisting of bodily structure; the one
comprehended by the intellect alone, the other estimated by the
judgment and the senses. The former class, therefore, which partakes
of the divine spirit, and is uncompounded and immaterial, is eternal,
and inherits everlasting life; but the latter, being entirely resolved
into the elements of which it is composed, has no share in everlasting
life. He farther teaches the admirable doctrine, that those who have
passed a life of virtue, that is, the spirits of good and holy men,
are enshrined, after their separation from the body, in the fairest
mansions of heaven. A doctrine not merely to be admired, but
profitable too. [3409] For who can believe in such a statement, and
aspire to such a happy lot, without desiring to practice righteousness
and temperance, and to turn aside from vice? Consistently with this
doctrine he represents the spirits of the wicked as tossed like
wreckage on the streams of Acheron and Pyriphlegethon.
Footnotes
[3405] This is almost identically the form of what Socrates (Apol. c.
2) declared to be the falsehood circulated by his enemies to his
prejudice. "But far more dangerous are those who began when you were
children and took possession of your minds with their falsehoods,
telling of one Socrates, a wise man who...made the worse appear the
better cause" (logon, "reason"), Tr. Jowett, 1 (1874), 316. This
example does peculiar discredit either to the learning or the mental
honesty of the author.
[3406] Rather "deriving existence from," "proceeding from," gives
strict idea, but may be confounded with the technical "proceeding
from" of the "filioque" controversy, which is quite another phrase.
[3407] "Spirit."
[3408] "The one simple" is not in the text, but is a conjectural
addition of Valesius, followed by most translators. "Consisting of
bodily structure" seems possibly to be an epexegetical phrase relating
to the "all things" which he divides into intellectual and sensible,
making the intellectual as well as the sensible to have bodily
(somatic) structure. "All things," or "the universe," a plural
technical term, is regarded as his mind passes to the explanation as
"the all." This psychological probability appears a simpler solution
than the various textual conjectures.
[3409] Heinichen suspects that there has been an inversion of words
here, and that it should have been, "He further teaches the admirable
and profitable doctrine," and "a doctrine not merely to be admired"
omitted.
Chapter X.--Of those who reject the Doctrines of Philosophers, as well
as those of Scripture: and that we ought to believe the Poets in All
Things, or disbelieve them in All.
There are, however, some persons so infatuated, that when they meet
with such sentiments as these, they are neither converted or alarmed:
nay, they even treat them with contempt and scorn, as if they listened
to the inventions of fable; applauding, perhaps, the beauty of the
eloquence, but abhorring the severity of the precepts. And yet they
give credence to the fictions of the poets, and make both civilized
and barbarous [3410] countries ring with exploded and false tales. For
the poets assert that the judgment of souls after death is committed
to men whose parentage they ascribe to the gods, [3411] extolling
their righteousness and impartiality and represent them as guardians
of the dead. The same poets describe the battles of the gods and
certain usages of war among them, and speak of them as subject to the
power of fate. Some of these deities they picture to us as cruel,
others as strangers to all care for the human race, and others again
as hateful in their character. They introduce them also as mourning
the slaughter of their own children, thus implying their inability to
succor, not strangers merely, but those most dear to them. They
describe them, too, as subject to human passions, and sing of their
battles and wounds, their joys and sorrows. And in all this they
appear worthy of belief. [3412] For if we suppose them to be moved by
a divine impulse to attempt the poetic art, we are bound to believe
them and to be persuaded of what they utter under this inspiration.
They speak, then, of the calamities to which their divinities are
subject; calamities which of course are altogether true! But it will
be objected that it is the privilege of poets to lie, since the
peculiar province of poetry is to charm [3413] the spirits of the
hearers, while the very essence of truth is that things told be in
reality exactly what they are said to be. [3414] Let us grant that it
is a characteristic of poetry occasionally to conceal the truth. But
they who speak falsehood do it not without an object; being influenced
either by a desire of personal gain or advantage, or possibly, being
conscious of some evil conduct, they are induced to disguise the truth
by dread of the threatening vengeance of the laws. But surely it were
possible for them (in my judgment), by adhering faithfully to truth at
least while treating of the nature of the Supreme Being, to avoid the
guilt at once of falsehood and impiety.
Footnotes
[3410] "All the Greek-speaking world, and foreign lands as well."
[3411] Rhadamanthus was a son of Jove (or Vulcan) and Europa. Cf. Hom.
Il. 14. 322; Od. 4. 564, 7. 323.
[3412] [There can be no doubt (though the fact is not immediately
apparent from the wording of the text), that the spirit of this
passage is ironical.--Bag.]
[3413] Rather "cheat," or "delude." Mr. Charles Dudley Warner,
essayist and novelist, says in an interesting essay on the relation of
fiction to life, that the object of fiction is to produce illusions,
and the test of its art is its power to produce such illusion.
[3414] There is a temptation here to adopt the translation of Molz.
"Truth lies in the fiction, however, when what is told corresponds to
reality." Mr. Warner, in his lecture, goes on to say that the object
of fiction is to reveal what is,--not the base and sordid things only
or peculiarly, but the best possibilities, and gives an exquisite
exposition of the fact that the idealism of true fiction is simply the
realism of the nobler characteristics and truths. The truth is, that
the object of fiction or poetry as art is to produce the image,--fill
the whole personality with a picture. This is only gained in its
highest form when every detail exactly corresponds to truth or
reality. The function of fiction is not illusion, but realization. Its
object is the reproduction of truth. Molz. makes Constantine say that
fiction is true when it corresponds to reality, though the forms be
not historical or actual. This is a true observation, but not what
Constantine says. He says in substance, with Mr. Warner, that the
object is to produce illusion or deceive, while the idea of truth is
just the reverse.
Chapter XI.--On the Coming of our Lord in the Flesh; its Nature and
Cause. [3415]
Whoever, then, has pursued a course unworthy of a life of virtue, and
is conscious of having lived an irregular and disorderly life, let him
repent, and turn with enlightened spiritual vision to God; and let him
abandon his past career of wickedness, content if he attain to wisdom
even in his declining years. We, however, have received no aid from
human instruction; nay, whatever graces of character are esteemed of
good report by those who have understanding, are entirely the gift of
God. And I am able to oppose no feeble buckler against the deadly
weapons of Satan's armory; I mean the knowledge I possess of those
things which are pleasing to him: and of these I will select such as
are appropriate to my present design, while I proceed to sing the
praises of the Father of all. But do thou, O Christ, Saviour of
mankind, be present to aid me in my hallowed task! Direct the words
which celebrate thy virtues, [3416] and instruct me worthily to sound
thy praises. And now, let no one expect to listen to the graces of
elegant language: for well I know that the nerveless eloquence of
those who speak to charm the ear, and whose aim is rather applause
than sound argument, is distasteful to hearers of sound judgment. It
is asserted, then, by some profane and senseless persons, that Christ,
whom we worship, was justly condemned to death, and that he who is the
author of life to all, was himself deprived of life. That such an
assertion should be made by those who have once dared to enter the
paths of impiety, who have cast aside all fear, and all thought of
concealing their own depravity, is not surprising. But it is beyond
the bounds of folly itself that they should be able, as it seems,
really to persuade themselves that the incorruptible God yielded to
the violence of men, and not rather to that love alone which he bore
to the human race: that they should fail to perceive that divine
magnanimity and forbearance is changed by no insult, is moved from its
intrinsic steadfastness by no revilings; but is ever the same,
breaking down and repelling, by the spirit of wisdom and greatness of
soul, the savage fierceness of those who assail it. The gracious
kindness of God had determined to abolish iniquity, and to exalt order
and justice. Accordingly, he gathered a company of the wisest among
men, [3417] and ordained that most noble and useful doctrine, which is
calculated to lead the good and blessed of mankind to an imitation of
his own providential care. And what higher blessing can we speak of
than this, that God should prescribe the way of righteousness, and
make those who are counted worthy of his instruction like himself;
that goodness might be communicated to all classes of mankind, and
eternal felicity be the result? This is the glorious victory: this the
true power: this the mighty work, worthy of its author, the
restoration of all people to soundness of mind: and the glory of this
triumph we joyfully ascribe to thee, thou Saviour of all! But thou,
vile and wretched blasphemy, whose glory is in lies and rumors and
calumny; thy power is to deceive and prevail with the inexperience of
youth, and with men who still retain the folly of youth. These thou
seducest from the service of the true God, and settest up false idols
as the objects of their worship and their prayers; and thus the reward
of their folly awaits thy deluded victims: for they calumniate Christ,
the author of every blessing, who is God, and the Son of God. Is not
the worship of the best and wisest of the nations of this world
worthily directed to that God, who, while possessing boundless power,
remains immovably true to his own purpose, and retains undiminished
his characteristic kindness and love to man? Away, then, ye impious,
for still ye may while vengeance on your transgressions is yet
withheld; begone to your sacrifices, your feasts, your scenes of
revelry and drunkenness, wherein, under the semblance of religion,
your hearts are devoted to profligate enjoyment, and pretending to
perform sacrifices, yourselves are the willing slaves of your own
pleasures. No knowledge have ye of any good, nor even of the first
commandment of the mighty God, who both declares his will to man, and
gives commission to his Son to direct the course of human life, that
they who have passed a career of virtue and self-control may obtain,
according to the judgment of that Son, a second, yea, a blessed and
happy existence. [3418] I have now declared the decree of God
respecting the life which he prescribes to man, neither ignorantly, as
many have done, nor resting on the ground of opinion or conjecture.
But it may be that some will ask, Whence this title of Son? Whence
this generation of which we speak, if God be indeed only One, and
incapable of union with another? We are, however, to consider
generation as of two kinds; one in the way of natural birth, which is
known to all; the other, that which is the effect of an eternal cause,
the mode of which is seen by the prescience of God, and by those among
men whom he loves. For he who is wise will recognize the cause which
regulates the harmony of creation. Since, then, nothing exists without
a cause, of necessity the cause of existing substances preceded their
existence. But since the world and all things that it contains exist,
and are preserved, [3419] their preserver must have had a prior
existence; so that Christ is the cause of preservation, and the
preservation of things is an effect: [3420] even as the Father is the
cause of the Son, and the Son the effect of that cause. Enough, then,
has been said to prove his priority of existence. But how do we
explain his descent to this earth, and to men? His motive in this,
[3421] as the prophets had foretold, originated in his watchful care
for the interests of all: for it needs must be that the Creator should
care for his own works. But when the time came for him to assume a
terrestrial body, and to sojourn on this earth, the need requiring, he
devised for himself a new mode [3422] of birth. Conception was there,
yet apart from marriage: childbirth, yet pure virginity: and a maiden
became the mother of God! An eternal nature received a beginning of
temporal existence: a sensible form of a spiritual essence, a material
manifestation of incorporeal brightness, [3423] appeared. Alike
wondrous were the circumstances which attended this great event. A
radiant dove, like that which flew from the ark of Noah, [3424]
alighted on the Virgin's bosom: and accordant with this impalpable
union, purer than chastity, more guileless than innocence itself, were
the results which followed. From infancy possessing the wisdom of God,
received with reverential awe by the Jordan, in whose waters he was
baptized, gifted with that royal unction, the spirit of universal
intelligence; with knowledge and power to perform miracles, and to
heal diseases beyond the reach of human art; he yielded a swift and
unhindered assent to the prayers of men, to whose welfare, indeed, his
whole life was devoted without reserve. His doctrines instilled, not
prudence only, [3425] but real wisdom: his hearers were instructed,
not in the mere social virtues, [3426] but in the ways which conduct
to the spiritual world; and devoted themselves to the contemplation of
immutable and eternal things, and the knowledge of the Supreme Father.
The benefits which he bestowed were no common blessings: for
blindness, the gift of sight; for helpless weakness, the vigor of
health; in the place of death, restoration to life again. I dwell not
on that abundant provision in the wilderness, whereby a scanty measure
of food became a complete and enduring supply [3427] for the wants of
a mighty multitude. [3428] Thus do we render thanks to thee, our God
and Saviour, according to our feeble power; unto thee, O Christ,
supreme Providence of the mighty Father, who both savest us from evil,
and impartest to us thy most blessed doctrine: for I say these things,
not to praise, but to give thanks. For what mortal is he who shall
worthily declare thy praise, of whom we learn that thou didst from
nothing call creation into being, and illumine it with thy light; that
thou didst regulate the confusion of the elements by the laws of
harmony and order? But chiefly we mark thy loving-kindness, [3429] in
that thou hast caused those whose hearts inclined to thee to desire
earnestly a divine and blessed life, and hast provided that, like
merchants of true blessings, they might impart to many others the
wisdom and good fortune they had received; themselves, meanwhile,
reaping the everlasting fruit of virtue. Freed from the trammels of
vice, and imbued with the love of their fellow-men, they keep mercy
ever before their eyes, and hoping for the promises of faith; [3430]
devoted to modesty, and all those virtues which the past career of
human life had thrown aside [but which were now restored by him whose
providence is over all]. [3431] No other power could be found to
devise a remedy for such evils, and for that spirit of injustice which
had heretofore asserted its dominion over the race of men. Providence,
however, could reach the circumstances even here, and with ease
restored whatever had been disordered by violence and the
licentiousness of human passion. And this restoring power he exercised
without concealment. For he knew that, though there were some whose
thoughts were able to recognize and understand his power, others there
were whose brutish and senseless nature led them to rely exclusively
on the testimony of their own senses. In open day, therefore, that no
one, whether good or evil, might find room for doubt, he manifested
his blessed and wondrous healing power; restoring the dead to life
again, and renewing with a word the powers of those who had been
bereft of bodily sense. [3432] Can we, in short, suppose, that to
render the sea firm as the solid ground, to still the raging of the
storm, and finally to ascend to heaven, after turning the unbelief of
men to steadfast faith by the performance of these wondrous acts,
demanded less than almighty power, was less than the work of God? Nor
was the time of his passion unaccompanied by like wonders: when the
sun was darkened, and the shades of night obscured the light of day.
Then terror everywhere laid hold upon the people, and the thought that
the end of all things was already come, and that chaos, such as had
been ere the order of creation began, would once more prevail. Then,
too, the cause was sought of so terrible an evil, and in what respect
the trespasses of men had provoked the wrath of Heaven; until God
himself, who surveyed with calm dignity the arrogance of the ungodly,
renewed the face of heaven, and adorned it with the host of stars.
Thus the beclouded face of Nature was again restored to her pristine
beauty.
Footnotes
[3415] One ms. adds, "and concerning those who did not know this
mystery." In another the Chapter is divided, and this is the heading
of the second part.
[3416] Or "this discourse concerning virtue."
[3417] [Alluding to the apostles, who are called in the beginning of
ch. 15, "the best men of their age." Were it our province to
criticise, we might notice the contrariety of such expressions as
these to the account which Scripture gives us of those "unlearned and
ignorant men," the feeble, and, in themselves, fallible instruments,
whom God selected to further his wondrous designs of mercy to a ruined
world.--Bag.] Were it in our province to criticise the critic, we
might notice that the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and
refer to the whole Book of Proverbs. Any just conception of wisdom or
true learning says the same thing. The man who knows that God and not
phusis or tuche manages the universe, is more learned than the wisest
of those learned in things which are not so.
[3418] Christophorson extends ch. 10 to this point, and here
introduces ch. 11, with the heading "On the coming of Our Lord in the
flesh; its nature and cause."
[3419] Preserved, preserver, and preservation = saved, saviour, and
salvation. This represents the N.T. idea better than the popular
conception which confuses Christ our Saviour with Christ our Redeemer.
Redemption was a necessary part of his effort for our salvation, but
the salvation itself was a saving, in literal English preserving. We
have been redeemed; we are being saved.
[3420] Bag.follows here Valesius' translation and note where he makes
the word "preservation" a conjectural emendation of Scaliger,
inconsistent with the meaning of the passage, and omits translating
"the cause of all things that exist." But Hein. does not even hint
such reading, and his text (followed also by Molz.), so far from
tending to disturb the whole meaning, gives much the more intelligent
conception. Christ is the preserver (saviour) of things. Preservation
of things is the effect of that cause, just as the Father is the cause
of the Son, and the Son the effect of that cause. Therefore the
preserver precedes created things as a cause precedes its effect.
[3421] Valesius expresses a preference for the reading kathodou
(advent) here instead of katholou (universal), but the latter is the
reading of Heinichen, and undoubtedly correct. Bag. has followed
Valesius.
[3422] "New mode" is a paraphrase supported by only one ms. The real
meaning of nothen is well expressed by Chr., "alienam quandam a
communi hominum natura nascendi rationem sibi excogitavit." Its usual
meaning is "illegitimate."
[3423] This is supposed to refer to Heb. i. 3, although a different
Greek word is used.
[3424] Various suggestions have been made regarding the dove which
according to the literal rendering "flew from the ark of Noah."
Christophorson (according to Valesius) supposes it to be that dove
which Noah formerly sent out of the ark, this dove being a figure of
the Holy Spirit which was afterward to come in the Virgin. Jerome, Ep.
ad Oc., also regards the Noachic dove as a symbol of the Holy Spirit.
Vales., followed by 1711 and Bag., prefer to translate as if it were
"like that," &c. This form of the story, according to which the Holy
Spirit descends in the form of a dove, is according to Valesius from
the Apocrypha; perhaps, he suggests, from the "Gospel to the Hebrews."
In later art the dove is the constant symbol of the Holy Spirit, and
is often found in pictures of the annunciation, e.g. in pictures by
Simeone Memmi, Dürer, Andrea del Sarto, and many others. It is found
in six of the pictures of the annunciation given by Mrs. Jameson
(Legends of the Madonna, p. 165 sq.).
[3425] The author seems to have here a reference to the Aristotelian
distinction between prudence and wisdom (cf. Ethics, 6. 3; 7. 8, &c.).
It reminds of that passage (vi. 7, ed. Grant ad. ii. 165-166), where
the two are distinguished and defined, wisdom being "concerned with
the immutable, and prudence with the variable"; and a little farther
along wisdom is distinguished from "statesmanship," i.e. the "social"
of Bag., which is a form of "prudence" (tr. Williams, p. 160), and
indeed (vi. 8. 1) generically identical with prudence. So again (1, 2)
"political art" is identified with ethics.
[3426] Social virtues or "political" virtues. Cf. the "political art"
or "statesmanship" of Aristotle.
[3427] [Pollou chronou, "for a considerable time." This seems to be a
rhetorical addition to the circumstances of the miracle, scarcely to
be justified by the terms of the inspired narrative.--Bag.]
[3428] At this point Christophorson begins his Chapter xii., "of those
who did not know the mystery," &c.
[3429] The translator takes most extraordinary liberties with the word
"philanthropy"; now it is "loving-kindness," now "love of their
fellow-men," and so on in picturesque variety, and yet as appropriate
as it is lacking in uniformity.
[3430] Cf. Rom. viii. 25; Gal. v. 5.
[3431] [The text, in the last clause of this passage, is undoubtedly
corrupt. The above is an attempt to supply a probable sense.--Bag.]
This is omitted by Hein. from his text.
[3432] i.e. healing the paralytics. This paraphrased passage reads
more literally, "bidding those bereft of sense [i.e. sensation,
feeling] to feel again." Still it may be that Molz. is right in
thinking it refers to the senses--seeing, hearing, &c.--as well as
feeling, though his translation will hardly stand; "and to such as
lacked any of the senses he granted the full use of all their senses
again."
Chapter XII.--Of those who are Ignorant of this Mystery; and that
their Ignorance is Voluntary. The Blessings which await those who know
it, especially such as die in the Confession of the Faith. [3433]
But it will be said by some, who love to blaspheme, that it was in the
power of God to ameliorate and soften the natural will of man. What
better way, I ask, what better method could be devised, what more
effectual effort put forth for reclaiming evil man, than converse with
God himself? Was not he visibly present to teach them the principles
of virtuous conduct? And if the personal instructions of God were
without effect, how much more, had he continued absent and unheard?
What, then, had power to hinder this most blessed doctrine? The
perverse folly of man. For the clearness of our perceptions is at once
obscured, as often as we receive with angry impatience those precepts
which are given for our blessing and advantage. In truth, it was the
very choice of men to disregard these precepts, and to turn a deaf ear
to the commandments so distasteful to them; though had they listened,
they would have gained a reward well worthy such attention, and that
not for the present only, but the future life, which is indeed the
only true life. For the reward of obedience to God is imperishable and
everlasting life, to which they may aspire who know him, [3434] and
frame their course of life so as to afford a pattern to others, and as
it were a perpetual standard for the imitation of those who desire to
excel in virtue. Therefore was the doctrine committed to men of
understanding, that the truths which they communicated might be kept
with care and a pure conscience by the members of their households,
and that thus a truthful and steadfast observance of God's commands
might be secured, the fruit of which is that boldness in the prospect
of death which springs from pure faith and genuine holiness before
God. He who is thus armed can withstand the tempest of the world, and
is sustained even to martyrdom by the invincible power of God, whereby
he boldly overcomes the greatest terrors, and is accounted worthy of a
crown of glory by him to whom he has thus nobly testified. [3435] Nor
does he himself assume the praise, knowing full well that it is God
who gives the power both to endure, and to fulfill with ready zeal the
Divine commands. And well may such a course as this receive the meed
of never-failing remembrance and everlasting honor. For as the
martyr's life is one of sobriety and obedience to the will of God, so
is his death an example of true greatness and generous fortitude of
soul. Hence it is followed by hymns and psalms, words and songs of
praise to the all-seeing God: and a sacrifice of thanksgiving is
offered in memory of such men, a bloodless, a harmless sacrifice,
wherein is no need of the fragrant frankincense, no need of fire; but
only enough of pure light [3436] to suffice the assembled worshipers.
Many, too, there are whose charitable spirit leads them to prepare a
temperate banquet for the comfort of the needy, and the relief of
those who had been driven from their homes: a custom which can only be
deemed burdensome [3437] by those whose thoughts are not accordant
with the divine and sacred doctrine.
Footnotes
[3433] Literally and better, "through the confession." It refers to
those who are technically known as confessors. Although in general the
distinction prevails by which those who have suffered, but not unto
death, are called "confessors," while those who lost their lives are
called "martyrs" (cf. Pseud-Cypr. de dupl. Mart. c. 31), yet its use
for martyrs is not uncommon (cf. Ambrose, ad Gratian, c. 2). Later the
term was used of all, especially faithful professors of Christ.
[3434] Cf. John xvii. 3; 1 John v. 19-20.
[3435] This translation "to whom" accords with the reading of
Valesius, followed by 1611, Molz., "Zimmermann," Cous. ("whose cause
he has sustained"), but Hein. adopts the reading "who," preceded by
Chr., who translates "who himself bravely endured martyrdom."
[3436] [Alluding to the tapers, &c., lighted at the tombs of martyrs
on the anniversary of their death.--Bag.] Compare Scudamore, Lights,
The Ceremonial Use of, in Smith and Cheetham, Dict. 1 (1880), 993 sq.
[3437] "Vulgar."
Chapter XIII.--That there is a Necessary Difference between Created
Things. That the Propensity to Good and Evil depends on the Will of
Man; and that, consequently, Judgment is a Necessary and Reasonable
Thing.
There are, indeed, some who venture with childish presumption to find
fault with God in respect of this also, and ask why it is that he has
not created one and the same natural disposition for all, but rather
has ordained the existence of many things different, nay, contrary in
their nature, whence arises the dissimilarity of our moral conduct and
character. Would it not (say they) have been better, both as regards
obedience to the commands of God, and a just apprehension of himself,
and for the confirmation of individual faith, that all mankind should
be of the same moral character? It is indeed ridiculous to expect that
this could be the case, and to forget that the constitution of the
world is different from that of the things that are in the world; that
physical and moral objects are not identical in their nature, nor the
affections of the body the same as those of the soul. [For the
immortal soul far exceeds the material world in dignity, and is more
blessed than the perishable and terrestrial creation, in proportion as
it is noble and more allied to God. [3438] ] Nor is the human race
excluded from participation in the divine goodness; though this is not
the lot of all indiscriminately, but of those only who search deeply
into the Divine nature, and propose the knowledge of sacred things as
the leading object of their lives.
Footnotes
[3438] [The text of this passage is defective. The conjectural
restoration of Valesius, which seems probable, is chiefly
followed.--Bag.] Heinichen, like Christophorson and Savil before him,
"does not hesitate," with one of the mss., to omit this passage.
Chapter XIV.--That Created Nature differs infinitely from Uncreated
Being; to which Man makes the Nearest Approach by a Life of Virtue.
Surely it must be the very height of folly to compare created with
eternal things, which latter have neither beginning nor end, while the
former, having been originated and called into being, and having
received a commencement of their existence at some definite time, must
consequently, of necessity have an end. How then can things which have
thus been made, bear comparison with him who has ordained their being?
Were this the case, [3439] the power to command their existence could
not rightly be attributed to him. Nor can celestial things be compared
to him, any more than the material [3440] with the intellectual [3441]
world, or copies with the models from which they are formed. Nay, is
it not absurd thus to confound all things, and to obscure the honor of
God by comparing him with men, or even with beasts? And is it not
characteristic of madmen, utterly estranged from a life of sobriety
and virtue, to affect a power equivalent to that of God? If indeed we
in any sense aspire to blessedness like that of God, our duty is to
lead a life according to his commandments: so shall we, having
finished a course consistent with the laws which he has prescribed,
dwell for ever superior to the power of fate, in eternal and
undecaying mansions. For the only power in man which can be elevated
to a comparison with that of God, is sincere and guileless service and
devotion of heart to himself, with the contemplation and study of
whatever pleases him, the raising our affections above the things of
earth, and directing our thoughts, as far as we may, to high and
heavenly objects: for from such endeavors, it is said, a victory
accrues to us more valuable than many blessings. [3442] The cause,
then, of that difference which subsists, as regards the inequality
both of dignity and power in created beings, is such as I have
described. In this the wise acquiesce with abundant thankfulness and
joy: while those who are dissatisfied, display their own folly, and
their arrogance will reap its due reward.
Footnotes
[3439] This is following with Heinichen, and meets the conjecture of
Valesius as over against the mss. and other conjectures, which,
substituting mania for homoia, read "for if it be madness to liken
these things to him," &c.
[3440] Or "sensible"; i.e. world of sense or perception.
[3441] This is the word often rendered by Bag. as "spiritual."
[3442] This is supposed to refer to Rev. ii. 7-10; iii. 11, &c. It
might well have in mind Col. iii. 2-4, or best of all Rev. xxi. 7, as
containing the thought of victory (nikEURo = "overcome").
Chapter XV.--Of the Saviour's Doctrines and Miracles; and the Benefits
he confers on those who own Subjection to him.
The Son of God invites all men to the practice of virtue, and presents
himself to all who have understanding hearts, as the teacher of his
saving precepts. [3443] Unless, indeed, we will deceive ourselves; and
remain in wretched ignorance of the fact, that for our advantage, that
is, to secure the blessing of the human race, he went about upon
earth; and, having called around him the best men of their age,
committed to them instructions full of profit, and of power to
preserve them in the path of a virtuous life; teaching them the faith
and righteousness which are the true remedy against the adverse power
of that malignant spirit whose delight it is to ensnare and delude the
inexperienced. Accordingly he visited the sick, relieved the infirm
from the ills which afflicted them, and consoled those who felt the
extremity of penury and want. He commended also sound and rational
sobriety of character, enjoining his followers to endure, with dignity
and patience, every kind of injury and contempt: teaching them to
regard such as visitations permitted by their Father, and the victory
is ever theirs who nobly bear the evils which befall them. For he
assured them that the highest strength of all consisted in this
steadfastness of soul, combined with that philosophy which is nothing
else than the knowledge of truth and goodness, producing in men the
generous habit of sharing with their poorer brethren those riches
which they have themselves acquired by honorable means. At the same
time he utterly forbade all proud oppression, declaring that, as he
had come to associate with the lowly, so those who despised the lowly
would be excluded from his favor. Such and so great was the test
whereby he proved the faith of those who owned allegiance to his
authority, and thus he not only prepared them for the contempt of
danger and terror, but taught them at the same time the most genuine
confidence in himself. Once, too, his rebuke was uttered to restrain
the zeal of one of his companions, who yielded too easily to the
impulse of passion, when he assaulted with the sword, and, eager to
protect his Saviour's life, exposed his own. Then it was that he bade
him desist, and returned his sword to its sheath, reproving him for
his distrust of refuge and safety in himself, and declaring solemnly
that all who should essay to retaliate an injury by like aggression,
or use the sword, should perish by a violent death. [3444] This is
indeed heavenly wisdom, to choose rather to endure than to inflict
injury, and to be ready, should necessity so require, to suffer, but
not to do, wrong. For since injurious conduct is in itself a most
serious evil, it is not the injured party, but the injuring, on whom
the heaviest punishment must fall. It is indeed possible for one who
is subject to the will of God to avoid the evil both of committing and
of suffering injury, provided his confidence be firm in the protection
of that God whose aid is ever present to shield his servants from
harm. For how should that man who trusts in God attempt to seek for
resources in himself? In such a case he must abide the conflict with
uncertainty of victory: and no man of understanding could prefer a
doubtful to a certain issue. Again, how can that man doubt the
presence and aid of God, who has had experience of manifold dangers,
and has at all times been easily delivered, at his simple nod, from
all terrors: who has passed, as it were, through the sea which was
leveled by the Saviour's word, and afforded a solid road for the
passage of the people? This is, I believe, the sure basis of faith,
the true foundation of confidence, that we find such miracles as these
performed and perfected at the command of the God of Providence. Hence
it is that even in the midst of trial we find no cause to repent of
our faith, but retain an unshaken hope in God; and when this habit of
confidence is established in the soul, God himself dwells in the
inmost thoughts. But he is of invincible power: the soul, therefore,
which has within it him who is thus invincible, will not be overcome
by the perils which may surround it. Likewise, [3445] we learn this
truth from the victory of God himself, who, while intent on providing
for the blessing of mankind, though grievously insulted by the malice
of the ungodly, yet passed unharmed through the sufferings of his
passion, and gained a mighty conquest, an everlasting crown of
triumph, over all iniquity; thus accomplishing the purpose of his own
providence and love as regards the just, and destroying the cruelty of
the impious and unjust.
Footnotes
[3443] This accords with the "margin of the Geneva Edition," and
mentioned by Valesius, who gives also "in the Saviour's commands" and
"in the Father's commands," which latter is adopted by Heinichen.
[3444] Matt. xxvi. 52; for "all they that take the sword shall perish
by the sword." Note the characteristic inflation of style. Matthew
takes eight words, the English translators twelve, Constantine
sixteen, and his translator twenty-two ponderous words.
[3445] Val. prefers pros ("besides") to para ("likewise, at the same
time"), and is followed by Bag.
Chapter XVI.--The Coming of Christ was predicted by the Prophets; and
was ordained to be the Overthrow of Idols and Idolatrous Cities.
Long since had his passion, as well as his advent in the flesh, been
predicted by the prophets. The time, too, of his incarnation had been
foretold, and the manner in which the fruits of iniquity and
profligacy, so ruinous to the works and ways of righteousness, should
be destroyed, and the whole world partake of the virtues of wisdom and
sound discretion, through the almost universal prevalence of those
principles of conduct which the Saviour should promulgate, over the
minds of men; whereby the worship of God should be confirmed, and the
rites of superstition utterly abolished. By these not the slaughter of
animals alone, but the sacrifice of human victims, and the pollutions
of an accursed worship, had been devised: as, for example, by the laws
of Assyria and Egypt, the lives of innocent men were offered up in
images of brass or earth. Therefore have these nations received a
recompense worthy so foul a worship. Memphis and Babylon [it was
declared] [3446] shall be wasted, and left desolate with their
fathers' gods. Now these things I speak not from the report of others,
but having myself been present, and actually seen the most wretched of
these cities, the unfortunate Memphis. [3447] Moses desolated, at the
Divine command, the land of the once mighty Pharaoh, whose arrogance
was his destruction, [3448] and destroyed his army (which had proved
victorious over numerous and mighty nations, an army strong in
defenses and in arms), not by the flight of arrows or the hurling of
hostile weapons, but by holy prayer alone, and quiet supplication.
Footnotes
[3446] Not in text. This parenthesis is the least obnoxious of various
proposed paraphrases.
[3447] Probably refers to its destruction by Diocletian, whom
Constantine accompanied. See Prolegomena, Life, Early Years.
[3448] The text of this passage is most dubious. Bag., following
Valesius, translates: "And an actual witness of the wretched fate
which has befallen these cities. Memphis lies desolate; that city
which was the pride of the once mighty Pharaoh whose power Moses
crushed at the Divine command." This has been changed to accord with
the text and punctuation of Heinichen. The change makes Constantine
declare himself an eye-witness of the fate of Memphis alone, which is
thought to accord with the facts; for while he was in fact in Egypt
with Diocletian there is no evidence that he ever saw Babylon. And yet
it is possible he did.
Chapter XVII.--Of the Wisdom of Moses, which was an Object of
Imitation to the Wise among Heathen Nations. Also concerning Daniel,
and the Three Children.
No nation has ever been more highly blessed than that which Moses led:
none would have continued to enjoy higher blessings, had they not
willingly withdrawn themselves from the guidance of the Holy Spirit.
But who can worthily describe the praises of Moses himself; who, after
reducing to order an unruly nation, and disciplining their minds
[3449] to habits of obedience and respect, out of captivity restored
them to a state of freedom, turned their mourning into gladness, and
so far elevated their minds, [3450] that, through the excess of
contrast with their former circumstances, and the abundance of their
prosperity, the spirit of the people was elated with haughtiness and
pride? So far did he surpass in wisdom those who had lived before him,
that even the wise men and philosophers [3451] who are extolled by
heathen nations aspired to imitate his wisdom. For Pythagoras,
following his wisdom, attained to such a pitch of self-control, that
he became to Plato, himself a model of discretion, the standard of his
own self-mastery. Again, how great and terrible the cruelty of that
ancient Syrian king, over whom Daniel triumphed, the prophet who
unfolded the secrets of futurity, whose actions evinced transcendent
greatness of soul, and the luster of whose character and life shone
conspicuous above all? The name of this tyrant was Nebuchadnezzar,
whose race afterward became extinct, and his vast and mighty power was
transferred to Persian hands. The wealth of this tyrant was then, and
is even now, celebrated far and wide, as well as his ill-timed
devotion to unlawful worship, his idol statues, lifting their heads to
heaven, and formed of various metals, and the terrible and savage laws
ordained to uphold this worship. These terrors Daniel, sustained by
genuine piety towards the true God, utterly despised, and predicted
that the tyrant's unseasonable zeal would be productive of fearful
evil to himself. He failed, however, to convince the tyrant (for
excessive wealth is an effectual barrier to true soundness of
judgment), and at length the monarch displayed the savage cruelty of
his character, by commanding that the righteous prophet should be
exposed to the fury of wild beasts. Noble, too, indeed was the united
spirit exhibited by those brethren [3452] (whose example others have
since followed, and have won surpassing glory by their faith in the
Saviour's name), [3453] those, I mean, who stood unharmed in the fiery
furnace, and the terrors appointed to devour them, repelling by the
holy touch of their bodies the flame by which they were surrounded. On
the overthrow of the Assyrian Empire, which was destroyed by
thunderbolts from Heaven, [3454] the providence of God conducted
Daniel to the court of Cambyses the Persian king. Yet envy followed
him even here; nor envy only, but the deadly plots of the magians
against his life, with a succession of many and urgent dangers, from
all which he was easily delivered by the providential care of Christ,
[3455] and shone conspicuous in the practice of every virtue. Three
times in the day did he present his prayers to God, and memorable were
the proofs of supernatural power which he displayed: and hence the
magians, filled with envy at the very efficacy of his petitions,
represented the possession of such power to the king as fraught with
danger, and prevailed on him to adjudge this distinguished benefactor
of the Persian people to be devoured by savage lions. Daniel,
therefore, thus condemned, was consigned to the lions' den (not indeed
to suffer death, but to win unfading glory); and though surrounded by
these ferocious beasts of prey, he found them more gentle than the men
who had enclosed him there. Supported by the power of calm and
steadfast prayer, he was enabled to subdue all these animals,
ferocious as, by nature, they were. Cambyses, on learning the event
(for so mighty a proof of Divine power could not possibly be
concealed), amazed at the marvelous story, and repenting the too easy
credence he had given to the slanderous charges of the magians,
resolved, notwithstanding, to be himself a witness of the spectacle.
But when he saw the prophet with uplifted hands rendering praises to
Christ, and the lions crouching, and as it were worshiping, at his
feet, immediately he adjudged the magians, to whose persuasions he had
listened, to perish by the self-same sentence, and shut them up in the
lions' den. [3456] The beasts, erewhile so gentle, rushed at once upon
their victims, and with all the fierceness of their nature tore and
destroyed them all. [3457]
Footnotes
[3449] "Souls."
[3450] "Souls."
[3451] The sage commentators on this passage have thought it incumbent
to explain and, as it were, apologize for the apparent tautology,
"wise men or philosophers,--whichever you choose to call them" (Val.
and Hein.). Colloquially speaking, there is a vast difference between
being a philosopher and being a wise man. Probably this is no slip of
style nor gracious option of language such as the editors impute, but
some more or less clear distinction of technical terms.
[3452] "Spirit exhibited by these brethren in suffering martyrdom."
[3453] Molz.remarks that to get any intelligent meaning out of this
mass of sounding words, the translator often has to guess and
translate very freely.
[3454] ['Anairetheises keraunon bolais. This must be regarded as a
rhetorical rather than historical allusion to the extinction of the
Assyrian Empire. The critical reader will not fail to mark occasional
instances of inaccuracy and looseness of statement in this Chapter,
and generally in the course of the oration.--Bag.] Valesius objects to
this passage as follows in the language of 1711: "Neither do I well
understand that. For Men, Towns, and Cities may be destroyed by
Thunder-bolts,...But, truly I can't see how a kingdom could be ruined
by Thunder."
[3455] Constantine evidently believed in an eternal Christ.
[3456] "He adjudged to perish by the self-same sentence, and shut them
up in the lions' den," is bracketed by Valesius and the second clause
omitted by Bag.
[3457] "Eliminated them all." Valesius calls attention to the
characteristic slight inaccuracies of our author! e.g. in the Biblical
account (1) it was not the magi; (2) it was not Cambyses.
Chapter XVIII.--Of the Erythræan Sibyl, who pointed in a Prophetic
Acrostic at our Lord and his Passion. The Acrostic is "Jesus Christ,
Son of God, Saviour, Cross."
My desire, however, is to derive even from foreign sources a testimony
to the Divine nature of Christ. For on such testimony it is evident
that even those who blaspheme his name must acknowledge that he is
God, and the Son of God if indeed they will accredit the words of
those whose sentiments coincided with their own. [3458] The Erythræan
Sibyl, then, who herself assures us that she lived in the sixth
generation after the flood, was a priestess of Apollo, who wore the
sacred fillet in imitation of the God she served, who guarded also the
tripod encompassed with the serpent's folds, and returned prophetic
answers to those who approached her shrine; having been devoted by the
folly of her parents to this service, a service productive of nothing
good or noble, but only of indecent fury, such as we find recorded in
the case of Daphne. [3459] On one occasion, however, having rushed
into the sanctuary of her vain superstition, she became really filled
with inspiration from above, and declared in prophetic verses the
future purposes of God; plainly indicating the advent of Jesus by the
initial letters of these verses, forming an acrostic in these words:
Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour, Cross. The verses themselves are as
follows:
Judgment! Earth's oozing pores [3460] shall mark the day;
Earth's heavenly king his glories shall display:
Sovereign of all, exalted on his throne,
Unnumbered multitudes their God shall own;
Shall see their Judge, with mingled joy and fear,
Crowned with his saints, in human form appear.
How vain, while desolate earth's glories lie,
Riches, and pomp, and man's idolatry!
In that dread hour, when Nature's fiery doom
Startles the slumb'ring tenants of the tomb,
Trembling all flesh shall stand; each secret wile,
Sins long forgotten, thoughts of guilt and guile,
Open beneath God's searching light shall lie:
No refuge then, but hopeless agony.
O'er heaven's expanse shall gathering shades of night
From earth, sun, stars, and moon, withdraw their light;
God's arm shall crush each mountain's towering pride;
On ocean's plain no more shall navies ride.
Dried at the source, no river's rushing sound
Shall soothe, no fountain slake the parched ground.
Around, afar, shall roll the trumpet's blast,
Voice of wrath long delayed, revealed at last.
In speechless awe, while earth's foundations groan,
On judgment's seat earth's kings their God shall own.
Uplifted then, in majesty divine,
Radiant with light, behold Salvation's Sign!
Cross of that Lord, who, once for sinners given,
Reviled by man, now owned by earth and heaven,
O'er every land extends his iron sway.
Such is the name these mystic lines display;
Saviour, eternal king, who bears our sins away. [3461]
It is evident that the virgin uttered these verses under the influence
of Divine inspiration. And I cannot but esteem her blessed, whom the
Saviour thus selected to unfold his gracious purpose towards us.
Footnotes
[3458] "Of their own selves."
[3459] [Daughter of Tiresias, and priestess at Delphi. She was called
Sibyl, on account of the wildness of her looks and expressions when
she delivered oracles (Lempriere in voc.).--Bag.]
[3460] [ ;;Idrosei gar chthon, k.t.l.--Bag.]
[3461] [It can scarcely be necessary to observe that the acrostic, the
general sense of which has been aimed at in the above translation,
must be regarded as the pious fiction of some writer, whose object was
to recommend the truth of Christianity to heathens by an appeal to the
authority of an (alleged) ancient heathen prophecy.--Bag.] The
quotation is found in the edition of Alexandre, Bk. VIII. ch. 219-250.
(Cf. translation in Augustin, De civ. Dei.) The translation of Bag.,
giving the "general sense" and reproducing the acrostic, stands
unchanged. The translation of 1709, much more vigorous and suggestive
of the "Dies Iræ," is as follows: "When the Great Day of Judgment
shall appear, The melting Earth shall then dissolve with fear; A King
Immortal shall from Heav'n descend, At whose Tribunal the whole world
attend. Both Just and Wicked shall, when Time grows old, Their mighty
God in flesh array'd behold; Armies of Saints on His Right hand shall
come, Whilst Humane Souls expect their final doom. Th' Universe shall
be a dry, Barren Strand, And Thorns shall flourish on the scorched
land; Men shall with indignation cast away Their Wealth and Idols in
that dreadful day. The parching Earth, and Heaven in flames shall fry,
And searching fire drain the Ocean dry: All flesh which in the Grave
imprison'd lay, Shake off their Fetters, and return to Day. Fire
'twixt Good and Bad shall diff'rence make, And filthy Dross from purer
Metal take. Man's secret Deeds shall all be open lay'd, And th'
obscure Mazes of their Hearts displayed; Gnashing their Teeth, they
shall their Fate bewail: The stars harmonious dance, and th' Sun shall
fail. The Orbs roll'd up, shrink into darkest night, The Labouring
Moon shall lose her borrowed light. Mountains with Plains on the same
Level lye; Vallies shall gape no more, nor Hills be high. On the proud
Billows Ships shall ride no more: And Lightning the Earth's Face shall
shrivel sore. The crackling Rivers with fierce Fire shall burn, Which
shall their streams to solid Crystal turn. The Heav'nly Trump shall
blow a doleful sound, And th' world's destruction, and its sin
resound. The yawning Earth Hell's vast Abyss shall shew; All Kings
before God's just Tribunal go. Then Liquid Sulphur from the Sky shall
stream, God shall pour down Rivers of vengeful flame; All men shall
then the Glorious Cross descry, That wished-for sign unto a faithful
eye: The Life of pious Souls, their chief delight; To Sinners an
Offence, a dismal sight! Enlightening the called with its beams, When
cleansed from sin in twice six limpid streams. His Empire shall be
boundless, and that God Shall Rule the Wicked with an Iron Rod; This
God, Immortal King, describ'd in Verse, Our Saviour, dying, shall
man's doom Reverse."
Chapter XIX.--That this Prophecy respecting our Saviour was not the
Fiction of any Member of the Christian Church, but the Testimony of
the Erythræan Sibyl, whose Books were translated into Latin by Cicero
before the coming of Christ. Also that Virgil makes mention of the
same, and of the Birth of the Virgin's Child: though he spoke
obscurely of this Mystery from Fear of the Ruling Powers.
Many, however, who admit that the Erythræan Sibyl was really a
prophetess, yet refuse to credit this prediction, and imagine that
some one professing our faith, and not unacquainted with the poetic
art, was the composer of these verses. They hold, in short, that they
are a forgery, and alleged to be the prophecies of the Sibyl on the
ground of their containing useful moral sentiments, tending to
restrain licentiousness, and to lead man to a life of sobriety and
decorum. Truth, however, in this case is evident, since the diligence
of our countrymen [3462] has made a careful computation of the times;
so that there is no room to suspect that this poem was composed after
the advent and condemnation of Christ, or that the general report is
false, that the verses were a prediction of the Sibyl in an early age.
For it is allowed that Cicero was acquainted with this poem, which he
translated into the Latin tongue, and incorporated with his own works.
[3463] This writer was put to death during the ascendancy of Antony,
who in his turn was conquered by Augustus, whose reign lasted
fifty-six years. Tiberius succeeded, in whose age it was that the
Saviour's advent enlightened the world, the mystery of our most holy
religion began to prevail, and as it were a new race of men commenced:
of which, I suppose, the prince of Latin poets thus speaks:
Behold, a new, a heaven-born race appears. [3464]
And again, in another passage of the Bucolics:
Sicilian Muses, sound a loftier strain.
What can be clearer than this? For he adds,
The voice of Cuma's oracle is heard again. [3465]
Evidently referring to the Cumæan Sibyl. Nor was even this enough: the
poet goes further, as if irresistibly impelled to bear his testimony.
What then does he say?
Behold! the circling years new blessings bring:
The virgin comes, with her the long-desired king. [3466]
Who, then, is the virgin who was to come? Is it not she who was filled
with, and with child of the Holy Spirit? And why is it impossible that
she who was with child of the Holy Spirit should be, and ever continue
to be a virgin? This king, too, will return, and by his coming lighten
the sorrows of the world. The poet adds,
Thou, chaste Lucina, greet the new-born child,
Beneath whose reign the iron offspring ends,
A golden progeny from heaven descends;
His kingdom banished virtue shall restore,
And crime shall threat the guilty world no more.
We perceive that these words are spoken plainly and at the same time
darkly, by way of allegory. Those who search deeply for the import of
the words, are able to discern the Divinity of Christ. But lest any of
the powerful in the imperial city might be able to accuse the poet of
writing anything contrary to the laws of the country, and subverting
the religious sentiments which had prevailed from ancient times, he
intentionally obscures the truth. For he was acquainted, as I believe,
with that blessed mystery which gave to our Lord the name of Saviour:
[3467] but, that he might avoid the severity of cruel men, he drew the
thoughts of his hearers to objects with which they were familiar,
saying that altars must be erected, temples raised, and sacrifices
offered to the new-born child. His concluding words also are adapted
to the sentiments of those who were accustomed to such a creed; for he
says:
Footnotes
[3462] "Our men," i.e. Christians rather than "countrymen."
[3463] [The passage in Cicero (De Divinatione, Bk. II. ch. 54) clearly
does not refer to this acrostic, and contains in itself a plain denial
of prophetic truth in the Sibylline prediction (whatever it was) which
the writer had in view. "Non esse autem illud carmen furentis, cum
ipsum poema declaret (est enim magis artis et diligentiæ, quam
incitationis et motus), tum verò ea, quæ akrostichis dicitur, cum
deinceps ex primis versuum litteris aliquid connectitur, ut in
quibusdam Cumanis, id certe magis est attenti animi, quam furentis,"
&c.--Bag.]
[3464] This and following quotations are found in the fourth eclogue
of Virgil--the Pollio. The version of Bag. is allowed to stand. If
farther variety of rendering and interpretation is desired, it can be
found in charming profusion in the various English translations of
Virgil of which the few at hand give ample promise. Those at hand are
Ogilby, Lond., 1675, p. 41-49; Warton, Lond., 1763, p. 76-82; Trapp,
Lond., 1755, p. 37-46; Kennedy, Lond., 1849, p. 25-29; Wilstach,
Bost., 1884, p. 154-161; Bowen, Lond., 1887, p. 24-28. Compare Henley,
Observations on the Subject of the Fourth Eclogue, etc., Lond., 1788.
8vo.
[3465] Here is variety indeed. 1711 renders, "Last times are come
Cumæa's prophecy,"--whatever that may mean. Molz. has "Now the voice
of the famed oracle of Cumæ is dumb."
[3466] Constantine takes large liberty with the poet here in order to
make him say what he would like to have had him say. The latest
translation at hand (Bowen) renders: "Now is the world's grand cycle
begun once more from of old; Justice the Virgin comes, and the Saturn
Kingdom again."
[3467] "The blessed and salutary mystery of our Saviour."--1709.
"Mystery of salvation."--Molz.
Chapter XX.--A Farther Quotation from Virgilius Maro respecting
Christ, with its Interpretation, showing that the Mystery was
indicated therein darkly, as might be expected from a Poet.
A life immortal he shall lead, and be
By heroes seen, himself shall heroes see;
evidently meaning the righteous.
The jarring nations he in peace shall bind,
And with paternal virtues rule mankind.
Unbidden earth her earliest fruits shall bring,
And fragrant herbs, to greet her infant king.
Well indeed was this admirably wise and accomplished man acquainted
with the cruel character of the times. He proceeds:
The goats, uncall'd, full udders home shall bear;
The lowing herds no more fierce lions fear.
Truly said: for faith will not stand in awe of the mighty in the
imperial palace.
His cradle shall with rising flowers be crown'd:
The serpent's brood shall die; the sacred ground
Shall weeds and poisonous plants refuse to bear;
Each common bush th' Assyrian rose [3468] shall wear.
Nothing could be said more true or more consistent with the Saviour's
excellency than this. For the power of the Divine Spirit presents the
very cradle of God, like fragrant flowers, to the new-born race.
[3469] The serpent, too, and the venom of that serpent, perishes, who
originally beguiled our first parents, and drew their thoughts from
their native innocence [3470] to the enjoyment of pleasures, that they
might experience [3471] that threatened death. For before the
Saviour's advent, the serpent's power was shown in subverting the
souls of those who were sustained by no well-grounded hope, and
ignorant of that immortality which awaits the righteous. But after
that he had suffered, and was separated for a season from the body
which he had assumed, the power of the resurrection was revealed to
man through the communication of the Holy Spirit: and whatever stain
of human guilt might yet remain was removed by the washing of sacred
lustrations.
Then indeed could the Saviour bid his followers be of good cheer, and,
remembering his adorable and glorious resurrection, expect the like
for themselves. Truly, then, the poisonous race may be said to be
extinct. Death himself is extinct, and the truth of the resurrection
sealed. Again, the Assyrian race is gone, which first led the way to
faith in God. [3472] But when he speaks of the growth of amomum every
where, he alludes to the multitude of the true worshipers of God.
[3473] For it is as though a multitude of branches, crowned with
fragrant flowers, and fitly watered, sprung from the self-same root.
Most justly said, Maro, thou wisest of poets! and with this all that
follows is consistent.
But when heroic worth his youth shall hear,
And learn his father's virtues to revere.
By the praises of heroes, he indicates the works of righteous men: by
the virtues of his Father he speaks of the creation and everlasting
structure of the world: and, it may be, of those laws by which God's
beloved Church is guided, and ordered in a course of righteousness and
virtue. Admirable, again, is the advance to higher things of that
state of life which is intermediate, as it were, between good and
evil, and which seldom admits a sudden change:
Unlabored harvests shall the fields adorn, [3474]
that is, the fruit of the Divine law springs up for the service of
men.
And clustered gropes shall blush on every thorn.
Far otherwise has it been during the corrupt and lawless period of
human life.
The knotted oaks shall showers of honey weep. [3475]
He here describes the folly and obduracy of the men of that age; and
perhaps he also intimates that they who suffer hardships in the cause
of God, shall reap sweet fruits of their own endurance.
Yet, of old fraud some footsteps shall remain;
The merchant still shall plough the deep for gain:
Great cities shall with walls be compassed round,
And sharpened shares shall vex the fruitful ground:
Another Tiphys shall new seas explore;
Another Argo land the chiefs upon the Iberian shore;
Another Helen other wars create,
And great Achilles urge the Trojan fate.
Well said, wisest of bards! Thou hast carried the license of a poet
precisely to the proper point. For it was not thy purpose to assume
the functions of a prophet, to which thou hadst no claim. I suppose
also he was restrained by a sense of the danger which threatened one
who should assail the credit of ancient religious practice.
Cautiously, therefore, and securely, as far as possible, he presents
the truth to those who have faculties to understand it; and while he
denounces the munitions and conflicts of war [3476] (which indeed are
still to be found in the course of human life), he describes our
Saviour as proceeding to the war against Troy, understanding by Troy
the world itself. [3477] And surely he did maintain the struggle
against the opposing powers of evil, sent on that mission both by the
designs of his own providence and the commandment of his Almighty
Father. How, then, does the poet proceed?
But when to ripen'd manhood he shall grow,
that is, when, having arrived at the age of manhood, he shall utterly
remove the evils which encompass the path of human life, and
tranquilize the world by the blessings of peace:
The greedy sailor shall the seas forego;
No keel shall cut the waves for foreign ware,
For every soil shall every product bear.
The laboring hind his oxen shall disjoin;
No plough shall hurt the glebe, no pruning-hook the vine;
Nor wool shall in dissembled colors shine:
But the luxurious father of the fold,
With native purple, and unborrow'd gold,
Beneath his pompous fleece shall proudly sweat;
And under Tyrian robes the lamb shall bleat.
Mature in years, to ready honors move,
O of celestial seed, O foster son of Jove!
See, laboring nature calls thee to sustain
The nodding flame of heaven, and earth, and main!
See to their base restored, earth, seas, and air;
And joyful ages, from behind, in crowing ranks appear.
To sing thy praise, would heaven my breath prolong.
Infusing spirits worthy such a song,
Not Thracian Orpheus should transcend my lays,
Nor Linus, crown'd with never-fading bays;
Though each his heavenly parent should inspire;
The Muse instruct the voice, and Phoebus tune the lyre.
Should Pan contend in verse, and thou my theme,
Arcadian judges should their God condemn. [3478]
Behold (says he) how the mighty world and the elements together
manifest their joy.
Footnotes
[3468] [Amomum.--Bag.] "Assyrian cinnamon," Kennedy, p. 28; "the
cardamon's spice shall grow, That from Assyria's gardens," Wilstach,
1, p. 157; "Syrian spices," Trapp, 1, p. 92; "Assyria's rich perfume,"
Warton, 1, p. 78; "Assyrian roses," Ogilby, p. 42.
[3469] [i.e. the Christians.--Bag.]
[3470] Self-control.
[3471] "Might not experience," according to some, including Heinichen,
who rejects in first, but accepts in text of his second edition.
[3472] [Referring, apparently, to Abraham. This passage is founded on
a misconstruction of Virgil's line by Constantine. which is followed
by the Greek verse itself according to one edition.--Bag.]
[3473] [By a kind of play on the word amomum, he alludes to the
Christians as amomoi, or blameless persons.--Bag.]
[3474] "The fields shall mellow wax with golden grain."
[3475] Bag.adds: "And through the matted grass the liquid gold shall
creep." 1709translates: "And th' hardened oaks with dewy honey sweat."
While Molz. has "Forth from the hard oak stems the lovely honey
flows." These all approach Virgil closer than they do Constantine.
With all allowance for poetic license, "pine" should hardly be
translated "oak."
[3476] Literally, "times and wars."--1709.
[3477] This, bad as it is, is hardly worse than the subjective
interpretation of scripture by modern allegorizers, and certainly no
worse than some of the Scripture interpretations of Eusebius.
[3478] [The reader will perceive that the foregoing verses, with but
little exception, and very slight alteration, are taken from Dryden's
translation of the fourth eclogue of Virgil.--Bag.]
Chapter XXI.--That these Things cannot have been spoken of a Mere Man:
and that Unbelievers, owing to their Ignorance of Religion, know not
even the Origin of their own Existence.
It may be some will foolishly suppose that these words were spoken of
the birth of a mere ordinary mortal. But if this were all, what reason
could there be that the earth should need neither seed nor plough,
that the vine should require no pruning-hook, or other means of
culture? How can we suppose these things to be spoken of a mere
mortal's birth? For nature is the minister of the Divine will, not an
instrument obedient to the command of man. Indeed, the very joy of the
elements indicates the advent of God, not the conception of a human
being. The prayer, too, of the poet that his life might be prolonged
is a proof of the Divinity of him whom he invoked; for we desire life
and preservation from God, and not from man. Indeed, the Erythræan
Sibyl thus appeals to God: "Why, O Lord, dost thou compel me still to
foretell the future, and not rather remove me from this earth to await
the blessed day of thy coming?" And Maro adds to what he had said
before:
Begin, sweet boy! with smiles thy mother know,
Who ten long months did with thy burden go.
No mortal parents smiled upon thy birth:
No nuptial joy thou know'st, no feast of earth.
How could his parents have smiled on him? For his Father [3479] is
God, who is a Power without sensible quality, [3480] existing, not in
any definite shape, but as comprehending other beings, [3481] and not,
therefore, in a human body. And who knows not that the Holy Spirit has
no participation in the nuptial union? For what desire can exist in
the disposition of that good which all things else desire? What
fellowship, in short, can wisdom hold with pleasure? But let these
arguments be left to those who ascribe to him a human origin, and who
care not to purify themselves from all evil in word as well as deed.
On thee, Piety, I call to aid my words, on thee who art the very law
of purity, most desirable of all blessings, teacher of holiest hope,
assured promise of immortality! Thee, Piety, and thee, Clemency, I
adore. We who have obtained thine aid [3482] owe thee everlasting
gratitude for thy healing power. But the multitudes whom their innate
hatred of thyself deprives of thy succor, are equally estranged from
God himself, and know not that the very cause of their life and being,
and that of all the ungodly, is connected with the rightful worship of
him who is Lord of all: for the world itself is his, and all that it
contains.
Footnotes
[3479] "Father" is emendation of Valesius embodied in his translation
(1659), but not his text (1659). It is bracketed by Molz. "His God
[and Father]."
[3480] "Pure force."
[3481] In this form it sounds much like Pantheism, but in translation
of Molz. this reads, "but determinable through the bounds of other
[existences]."
[3482] So Valesius conjectures it should read, but the text of Val.
and Hein. read, "We needy ones owe," &c.
Chapter XXII.--The Emperor thankfully ascribes his Victories and all
other Blessings to Christ; and condemns the Conduct of the Tyrant
Maximin, the Violence of whose Persecution had enhanced the Glory of
Religion.
To thee, Piety, I ascribe the cause of my own prosperity, and of all
that I now possess. To this truth the happy issue of all my endeavors
bears testimony: brave deeds, victories in war, and triumphs over
conquered foes. This truth the great city itself allows with joy and
praise. The people, too, of that much-loved city accord in the same
sentiment, though once, deceived by ill-grounded hopes, they chose a
ruler unworthy of themselves, [3483] a ruler who speedily received the
chastisement which his audacious deeds deserved. But be it far from me
now to recall the memory of these events, while holding converse with
thee, Piety, and essaying with earnest endeavor to address thee with
holy and gentle words. Yet will I say one thing, which haply shall not
be unbefitting or unseemly. A furious, a cruel, and implacable war was
maintained by the tyrants against thee, Piety, and thy holy churches:
nor were there wanting some in Rome itself who exulted at a calamity
so grievous to the public weal. Nay, the battlefield was prepared;
when thou didst stand forth, [3484] and present thyself a voluntary
victim, supported by faith in God. Then indeed it was that the cruelty
of ungodly men, which raged incessantly like a devouring fire, wrought
for thee a wondrous and ever memorable glory. Astonishment seized the
spectators themselves, when they beheld the very executioners who
tortured the bodies of their holy victims wearied out, and disgusted
at the cruelties; [3485] the bonds loosened, the engines of torture
powerless, the flames extinguished, while the sufferers preserved
their constancy unshaken even for a moment. What, then, hast thou
gained by these atrocious deeds, most impious of men? [3486] And what
was the cause of thy insane fury? Thou wilt say, doubtless, these acts
of thine were done in honor of the gods. What gods are these? or what
worthy conception hast thou of the Divine nature? Thinkest thou the
gods are subject to angry passions as thou art? Were it so indeed, it
had been better for thee to wonder at their strange determination than
obey their harsh command, when they urged thee to the unrighteous
slaughter of innocent men. Thou wilt allege, perhaps, the customs of
thy ancestors and the opinion of mankind in general, as the cause of
this conduct. I grant the fact: for those customs are very like the
acts themselves, and proceed from the self-same source of folly. Thou
thoughtest, it may be, that some special power resided in images
formed and fashioned by human art; and hence thy reverence, and
diligent care lest they should be defiled: those mighty and highly
exalted gods, thus dependent on the care of men!
Footnotes
[3483] [Maxentius (W. Lowth in loc.).--Bag.]
[3484] This passage clearly refers to the voluntary sufferings of the
martyrs. See the note of Valesius.
[3485] "At a loss to invent fresh cruelties," Bag.; "And perplexed at
the labor and trouble they met with," 1709; "And reluctantly pursuing
their terrible work," Molz.
[3486] Alluding to Maximin, the most bitter persecutor of the
Christians, as appears from the title of this Chapter.
Chapter XXIII.--Of Christian Conduct. That God is pleased with those
who lead a Life of Virtue: and that we must expect a Judgment and
Future Retribution.
Compare our religion with your own. Is there not with us genuine
concord, and unwearied love of others? If we reprove a fault, is not
our object to admonish, not to destroy; our correction for safety, not
for cruelty? Do we not exercise, not only sincere faith towards God,
but fidelity in the relations of social life? Do we not pity the
unfortunate? Is not ours a life of simplicity which disdains to cover
evil beneath the mask of fraud and hypocrisy? Do we not acknowledge
the true God, and his undivided sovereignty? This is real godliness:
this is religion sincere and truly undefiled: this is the life of
wisdom; and they who have it are travelers, as it were, on a noble
road which leads to eternal life. For he who has entered on such a
course, and keeps his soul pure from the pollutions of the body, does
not wholly die: rather may he be said to complete the service
appointed him by God, than to die. Again, he who confesses allegiance
to God is not easily overborne by insolence or rage, but nobly stands
under the pressure of necessity and the trial of his constancy is as
it were, a passport to the favor of God. For we cannot doubt that the
Deity is pleased with excellence in human conduct. For it would be
absurd indeed if the powerful and the humble alike acknowledge
gratitude to those from whose services they receive benefit, and repay
them by services in return, and yet that he who is supreme and
sovereign of all, nay, who is Good itself, should be negligent in this
respect. Rather does he follow us throughout the course of our lives,
is near us in every act of goodness, accepts, and at once rewards our
virtue and obedience; though he defers the full recompense to that
future period, when the actions of our lives shall pass under his
review and when those who are clear in that account shall receive the
reward of everlasting life, while the wicked shall be visited with the
penalties due to their crimes.
Chapter XXIV.--Of Decius, Valerian, and Aurelian, who experienced a
Miserable End in consequence of their Persecution of the Church.
To thee, Decius, [3487] I now appeal, who has trampled with insult on
the labors of the righteous: to thee, the hater of the Church, the
punisher of those who lived a holy life: what is now thy condition
after death? How hard and wretched thy present circumstances! Nay, the
interval before thy death gave proof enough of thy miserable fate,
when overthrown with all thine army on the plains of Scythia, thou
didst expose the vaunted power of Rome to the contempt of the Goths.
Thou, too, Valerian, who didst manifest the same spirit of cruelty
towards the servants of God, hast afforded an example of righteous
judgment. A captive in the enemies' hands, led in chains while yet
arrayed in the purple and imperial attire, and at last thy skin
stripped from thee, and preserved by command of Sapor the Persian
king, thou hast left a perpetual trophy of thy calamity. And thou,
Aurelian, fierce perpetrator of every wrong, how signal was thy fall,
when, in the midst of thy wild career in Thrace, thou wast slain on
the public highway, and didst fill the furrows of the road with thine
impious blood!
Footnotes
[3487] [Vide Euseb. Hist. Eccles. Bk. VI. ch. 39. Gibbon (ch. 16)
notices very leniently the persecution of Decius.--Bag.]
Chapter XXV.--Of Diocletian, who ignobly abdicated [3488] the Imperial
Throne, and was terrified by the Dread of Lightning for his
Persecution of the Church.
Diocletian, however, after the display of relentless cruelty as a
persecutor, evinced a consciousness of his own guilt and owing to the
affliction of a disordered mind, endured the confinement of a mean and
separate dwelling. [3489] What then, did he gain by his active
hostility against our God? Simply this I believe, that he passed the
residue of his life in continual dread of the lightning's stroke.
Nicomedia attests the fact; eyewitnesses, of whom I myself am one,
declare it. The palace, and the emperor's private chamber were
destroyed, consumed by lightning, devoured by the fire of heaven. Men
of understanding hearts had indeed predicted the issue of such
conduct; for they could not keep silence, nor conceal their grief at
such unworthy deeds; but boldly and openly expressed their feeling,
saying one to another: "What madness is this? and what an insolent
abuse of power, that man should dare to fight against God; should
deliberately insult the most holy and just of all religions; and plan,
without the slightest provocation, the destruction of so great a
multitude of righteous persons? O rare example of moderation to his
subjects! Worthy instructor of his army in the care and protection due
to their fellow-citizens! Men who had never seen the backs of a
retreating army plunged their swords into the breasts of their own
countrymen!" So great was the effusion of blood shed, that if shed in
battle with barbarian enemies, it had been sufficient to purchase a
perpetual peace. [3490] At length, indeed, the providence of God took
vengeance on these unhallowed deeds; but not without severe damage to
the state. For the entire army of the emperor of whom I have just
spoken, becoming subject to the authority of a worthless person,
[3491] who had violently usurped the supreme authority at Rome (when
the providence of God restored freedom to that great city), was
destroyed in several successive battles. And when we remember the
cries with which those who were oppressed, and who ardently longed for
their native liberty implored the help of God; and their praise and
thanksgiving to him on the removal of the evils under which they had
groaned, when that liberty was regained, and free and equitable
intercourse restored: do not these things every way afford convincing
proofs of the providence of God, and his affectionate regard for the
interests of mankind?
Footnotes
[3488] Cf. Prolegomena, Life.
[3489] [The derangement of Diocletian appears to have been temporary
only. The causes of his abdication are not very clearly ascertained;
but he seems to have meditated the step a considerable time
previously. See Gibbon, ch. 13, and the note of Valesius.--Bag.]
[3490] Valesius and Hein., in his first edition, and Bag. read this
transposed thus, "...severe damage to the state, and an effusion of
blood; which, if shed," etc. But Val. suggests, and Heinichen adopts
in his second edition, that the whole sentence should be transposed as
above.
[3491] ["He means Maxentius, as appears from what follows. How
Diocletian's army came under the command of Maxentius, it is not
difficult to understand. After Diocletian's abdication, Galerius
Maximian took the command of his forces, giving part to Severus Cæsar
for the defence of Italy. Shortly afterwards, Maxentius having usurped
the Imperial power at Rome, Galerius sent Severus against him with his
forces. Maxentius, however, fraudulently and by promises corrupted and
drew to his own side Severus's army. After this, Galerius, having
marched against Maxentius with a more numerous force, was himself in
like manner deserted by his troops. Thus the army of Diocletian came
under the power of Maxentius" (Valesius ad loc.).--Bag.]
Chapter XXVI.--The Emperor ascribes his Personal Piety to God; and
shows that we are bound to seek Success from God, and attribute it to
him; but to consider Mistakes as the Result of our own Negligence.
When men commend my services, which owe their origin to the
inspiration of Heaven, do they not clearly establish the truth that
God is the cause of the exploits I have performed? Assuredly they do:
for it belongs to God to do whatever is best, and to man, to perform
the commands of God. I believe, indeed, the best and noblest course of
action is, when, before an attempt is made, we provide as far as
possible for a secure result: and surely all men know that the holy
service in which these hands have been employed has originated in pure
and genuine faith towards God; that whatever has been done for the
common welfare has been effected by active exertion combined with
supplication and prayer; the consequence of which has been as great an
amount of individual and public benefit as each could venture to hope
for himself and those he holds most dear. They have witnessed battles,
and have been spectators of a war in which the providence of God has
granted victory to this people: [3492] they have seen how he has
favored and seconded our prayers. For righteous prayer is a thing
invincible; and no one fails to attain his object who addresses holy
supplication to God: nor is a refusal possible, except in the case of
wavering faith; [3493] for God is ever favorable, ever ready to
approve of human virtue. While, therefore, it is natural for man
occasionally to err, yet God is not the cause of human error. Hence it
becomes all pious persons to render thanks to the Saviour of all,
first for our own individual security, and then for the happy posture
of public affairs: at the same time intreating the favor of Christ
with holy prayers and constant supplications, that he would continue
to us our present blessings. For he is the invincible ally and
protector of the righteous: he is the supreme judge of all things, the
prince of immorality, the Giver of everlasting life.
Footnotes
[3492] i.e. the Roman. So Val. and Hein., but Val. thinks it may
perhaps rather be "to my army."
[3493] Better, literally, "slackening faith." There is somewhat of
loss from the primitive and real conception of faith in the fixing of
the word "wavering" as the conventional expression for weak. Faith is
the steadfast current of personality towards an object, and poverty of
faith is more often the abatement or slackening of that steady,
insistent activity than the wavering of doubt. There is more unbelief
than disbelief.
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