Dualism is any theory or system of thought that recognizes two and only two independent and mutually irreducible principles or substances, which are sometimes complementary and sometimes in conflict. Dualisms are distinguished from Monisms, which admit only one element or kind of element, and from Pluralisms, which admit more than two elements or kinds of elements. The polarities of a dualism are distinguished from the thesis and antithesis of a Dialectic, in that the former are stable and mutually exclusive and the latter are dynamic, always tending toward synthesis.二元论是任何理论或系统的理论认为承认两种，只有两个独立的，相互不可原则或物质，它有时是互补的，有时冲突。 dualisms有别于monisms ，它承认只有一个元素或种元素，并从pluralisms ，其中承认两个以上的要素或种元素。极性的一个二元论是有别于论文和对立面的辩证的，因为前者是一个稳定的和互相排斥的，后者是动态的，总是趋向合成。
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Plato's being and becoming, Aristotle's form and matter, Kant's noumena and phenomena, yin and yang in Chinese philosophy and the traditional issues of God and man, space and time, and nature and nurture are among other famous dualisms.柏拉图的幸福和成为亚里士多德的形式和物质的，康德的本体与现象，阴阳，在中国哲学和传统问题的人与上帝，空间和时间，性质和培养是其他著名dualisms 。
Donald Gotterbarn唐纳德gotterbarn
Bibliography
参考书目
AO Lovejoy, The
Revolt Against Dualism (1930).敖勒福乔，反抗二元论（ 1930年） 。
Dualism is a theory in interpretation which explains a given situation or domain in terms of two opposing factors or principles.二元论是一个理论在解释这解释了某种特定的情况或域而言，两种对立因素或原则。 In general, dualisms are twofold classifications which admit of no intermediate degrees.一般来说， dualisms有两个分类，其中承认的，没有中间程度的影响。 There are three major types: metaphysical, epistemological or epistemic, and ethical or ethicoreligious.主要有三种类型：一种形而上学，认识论或认知，伦理或ethicoreligious 。
Metaphysical dualism asserts that the facts of the universe are best explained in terms of mutually irreducible elements.形而上的二元论声称事实的宇宙，是最好的解释，无论在相互束缚元素。 These are often considered to be mind and matter, or as by Descartes, thought and extension.这些往往被认为是心与物，或由笛卡儿，思路和可扩展性。 Mind is usually conceived as conscious experience, matter as occupying space and being in motion.记通常设想为自觉的经验，无论作为占领空间，并在议案。 They are thus two qualitatively different orders of reality.因此，他们两个本质上不同的命令的现实。
Epistemological dualism is an analysis of the knowing situation which holds that the idea or object of judgment is radically other than the real object.认识论二元论是一个分析研究，了解情况，认为自己的想法或对象的判断是，从根本上以外的其他实物。 The "object" of knowledge is held to be known only through the mediation of "ideas." "物体"的知识，目的是向被称为只有通过调解的"想法" 。 This type of thinking raises the important question of the manner in which knowledge can bridge the gap between the idea of an object and the object itself.这种类型的思想，提出了重要的问题，以何种方式在知识，可以缩短贫富差距的想法一个物体与物体本身。
Ethical or ethicoreligious dualism asserts that there are two mutually hostile forces or beings in the world, the one being the source of all good, the other the source of all evil. The most clear cut type of ethicoreligious dualism is that of the ancient Iranian religion, usually associated with the name of Zoroaster, in which Ahura Mazda and Ahriman represent the projection into cosmology, respectively, of the forces of good and evil. 道德或ethicoreligious二元断言，有两个互相敌对势力，还是在世界上，其中之一是从源头上的一切好外，其他万恶之源。最明确的类型ethicoreligious二元论，是对古代伊朗宗教，通常与名义zoroaster ，其中阿胡拉马自达和ahriman代表投射到宇宙学，分别占该部队的善良与邪恶。 The universe becomes the battleground for these opposing beings, identified respectively with light and darkness.宇宙变成战场，为这些反对的人，身份分别与光明与黑暗。 More moderate forms of dualism pervade most religions, expressed, for example, by the distinction between sacred and profane, or by the analysis of reality in terms of yang and yin in Chinese thought.较温和形式的二元论随处可见大多数宗教都表示，举例来说，由区分神圣和亵渎，或由分析现实而言，杨，尹在中国的思想。
Christian theology generally accepts a modified moral dualism, recognizing God as supremely good and Satan as a deteriorated creature bent everywhere upon the intrusion of evil. This, however, is not dualism in the sense of its usual definition, since Christian theology does not consider Satan to be ultimate or original, and sees him ultimately excluded from the universe. 基督教神学普遍接受改良道德二元论，认识上帝作为千钧好撒旦作为一个坏头动物执意要处处当入侵的邪恶。不过，这并不是二元论在意义上的一贯定义，因为基督教神学并不认为撒旦可最终还是原来的，并认为他最终被排除在宇宙中去。
HB
Kuhn血红蛋白库恩
(Elwell Evangelical Dictionary)
（ Elwell宣布了福音字典）
Bibliography
参考书目
D Runes,
Dictionary of Philosophy. d runes ，字典的哲学。
(From Latin duo, two). （来自拉丁语铎，两名） 。
Like most other philosophical terms, has been employed in different meanings by different schools.像其他大部分的哲学术语，已受聘于不同的含义是由不同的学校。
First, the name has been used to denote the religious or theological system which would explain the universe as the outcome of two eternally opposed and coexisting principles, conceived as good and evil, light and darkness, or some other form of conflicting powers.第一，名称已被用来指宗教或神学体系，其中将解释宇宙的结果，两个永远反对和共存的原则，设想为善良与邪恶，光明与黑暗，或其他某种形式的相互矛盾的权力。 We find this theory widely prevalent in the East, and especially in Persia, for several centuries before the Christian Era.我们发现这一理论广为流行，在东方，尤其是在波斯，几百年前基督时代。 The Zend-Avesta, ascribed to Zoroaster, who probably lived in the sixth century BC and is supposed to be the founder or reformer of the Medo-Persian religion, explains the world as the outcome of the struggle between Ormuzd and Ahriman.在Zend - avesta ，归功于zoroaster ，他们大概住在公元前六世纪，并应该是创始人或改革者的medo -波斯宗教，解释世界的结果之间的斗争ormuzd和ahriman 。 Ormuzd is infinite light, supreme wisdom, and the author of all good; Ahriman is the principle of darkness and of all evil. ormuzd是无穷轻，最高的智慧，与作者的所有好的; ahriman的原则，是黑暗的一切邪恶。 In the third century after Christ, Manes, for a time a convert to Christianity, developed a form of Gnosticism, subsequently styled Manichaeism, in which he sought to fuse some of the elements of the Christian religion with the dualistic creed of Zoroastrianism (see MANICHAEISM and ZOROASTER).在三世纪后，基督教会， Manes认为，今后一个时期皈依基督教，开发一种形式的灵知，随后风格的摩尼教，他在其中寻求保险丝的一些组成部分，基督教与二元信条zoroastrianism （见摩尼教和zoroaster ） 。 Christian philosophy, expounded with minor differences by theologians and philosophers from St. Augustine downwards, holds generally that physical evil is the result of the necessary limitations of finite created beings, and that moral evil, which alone is evil in the true sense, is a consequence of the creation of beings possessed of free wills and is tolerated by God.基督教哲学，阐述了同小异，由神学家和哲学家，从圣奥古斯丁向下，持有普遍认为身体是邪恶的结果，必要的限制，有限的创造人，而且道德上的邪恶，这仅是邪恶在真正的意义上来说，是一个后果创造的人具有自由意志和容忍，都是神安排的。 Both physical and moral evil are to be conceived as some form of privation or defect of being, not as positive entity.身体和道德上的邪恶，是被视为某种形式的穷困或缺陷，而不是正面的实体。 Their existence is thus not irreconcilable with the doctrine of theistic monism.它们的存在，因此不是不可调和与中庸有神论的一元论。
Second, the term dualism is employed in opposition to monism, to signify the ordinary view that the existing universe contains two radically distinct kinds of being or substance -- matter and spirit, body and mind.第二，任期二元论是受雇于反对一元论，以显示一般认为，现行的宇宙包含两个根本性鲜明种正在或物质-物质和精神，身体和心灵。 This is the most frequent use of the name in modern philosophy, where it is commonly contrasted with monism.这是最经常使用的名字，在现代哲学的，因为它正在普遍形成对照的一元论。 But it should not be forgotten that dualism in this sense is quite reconcilable with a monistic origin of all things.但不应该忘记的是二元论在这个意义上，是相当调和的一个monistic原产地的所有东西。 The theistic doctrine of creation gives a monistic account of the universe in this sense.该有神论学说的创立提供了monistic帐户的宇宙，从这个意义上讲。 Dualism is thus opposed to both materialism and idealism.二元论，因而反对这两个唯物论与唯心论。 Idealism, however, of the Berkeleyan type, which maintains the existence of a multitude of distinct substantial minds, may along with dualism, be described as pluralism.唯心论，然而，在berkeleyan类型，保持存在众多的独特大幅头脑，可随着二元论，被形容为多元化。
Historically, in Greek philosophy as early as 500 BC we find the Eleatic School with Parmenides as their chief, teaching a universal unity of being, thus exhibiting a certain affinity with modern German monism.从历史上看，在希腊哲学早在西元前500年，我们找到eleatic学校与巴门尼德为自己的行政，教学的一个普遍的统一，从而呈现一定的亲和力与现代德语一元论。 Being alone exists.被单独存在。 It is absolutely one, eternal, and unchangeable.这是绝对的，永恒的，一成不变的。 There is no real becoming or beginning of being.有没有真正成为或开始的。 Seeming changes and plurality of beings are mere appearances.似乎有变化性和多元性的人，只是外表。 To this unity of being, Plato opposed an original duality--God and unproduced matter, existing side by side from all eternity.以这种团结精神的，柏拉图反对原始偶-上帝和u nproduced此事，现有并排从所有永恒。 This matter, however, was conceived as indeterminate, chaotic, fluctuating, and governed by a blind necessity, in contrast with mind which acts according to plan.这件事，不过，被视为不定，混乱，起伏不定，以及由一个盲人的必要性，而相比之下，牢记哪些行为按计划进行。 The order and arrangement are due to God.该命令和安排，是因为上帝。 Evil and disorder in the world have their source in the resistance of matter which God has not altogether vanquished.邪恶和无序的，在世界上有其源中的阻力问题，上帝并没有完全被征服。 Here we seem to have a trace of the Oriental speculation.在这里，我们似乎有一个微量的，东方的投机活动。 Again there is another dualism in man.这又是另一种二元论，在男子。 The rational soul is a spiritual substance distinct from the body within which it dwells, somewhat as the charioteer in the chariot.理性的灵魂，是一个精神实质有别于机构，它整篇，有点作为charioteer在一辆战车上。 Aristotle is dualistic on sundry important topics.亚里士多德是二元论杂项重要的课题。 The contrast between the fundamental conceptions of matter and form--a potential and an actualizing principle--runs through all branches of his system.对比基本概念的问题，并表-有潜力的一个a ctualizing原则-贯穿于各分公司的H I S系统。 Necessarily coeternal with God, Who is pure actuality, there has existed the passive principle of matter, which in this sense, however, is mere potentiality.一定coeternal与神，谁是纯粹的现状，有存在的消极原则的问题，在这个意义上，但仅仅是潜力。 But further, along with God Who is the Prime Mover, there must also have existed from all eternity the World moved by God.但进一步的，随着神谁是原动机，还必须有存在的，从所有永恒的世界提出的上帝。 In his treatment of cognition Aristotle adopts the ordinary common-sense view of the existence of individual objects distinct from our perceptions and ideas of them.在他治疗的认知亚里士多德采用普通常见的常识性的看法存在着个别物体有别于我们的看法和想法。 Man is an individual substantial being resulting from the coalescence of the two principles--form (the soul) and matter.人都不是一个单独的大幅正在导致从凝聚着两个原则-形式（灵魂）及此事。
Christianity rejected all forms of a dual origin of the world which erected matter, or evil, or any other principle into a second eternal being coexistent with God, and it taught the monistic origin of the universe from one, infinite, self-existing spiritual Being who freely created all things.基督教拒绝一切形式的双重世界的本源，其中竖立的事，或邪恶，或任何其他的原则，成为第二个永恒的福祉共存与上帝，它教会了monistic宇宙的起源，从一，有无限的，自我存在的精神正那些自由创造了一切的东西。 The unfamiliar conception of free creation, however, met with considerable opposition in the schools of philosophy and was abandoned by several of the earlier heresies.生疏的概念，自由创作的，但是，遇到了相当大的反对，在学校的哲学和被遗弃的几个较早的异端邪说。 The neo-Platonists sought to lessen the difficulty by emanastic forms of pantheism, and also by inserting intermediate beings between God and the world.新保守主义platonists设法减轻难度，由emanastic形式的泛神论，同时由插入中间的人在神和世界之间。 But the former method implied a materialistic conception of God, while the latter only postponed the difficulty.但前者方法隐含着功利观的上帝，而后者则只能推迟了难度。 From the thirteenth century, through the influence of Albertus Magnus and still more of St. Thomas Aquinas, the philosophy of Aristotle, though subjected to some important modifications, became the accredited philosophy of the Church.从13世纪，通过的影响： Albertus马格纳斯还有更多的圣托马斯阿奎那，哲学，亚里士多德，虽然遭受了一些重要修改，成为认可的哲学教会。 The dualistic hypothesis of an eternal world existing side by side with God was of course rejected.二元假说的一个永恒的世界共存与上帝的当然拒绝。 But the conception of spiritual beings as opposed to matter received fuller definition and development.但观的精神，以此作为反对此事得到更详尽的定义和发展。 The distinction between the human soul and the body which it animates was made clearer and their separability emphasized; but the ultra-dualism of Plato was avoided by insisting on the intimate union of soul and body to constitute one substantial being under the conception of form and matter.区分人的灵魂和身体的，它以动画的，是明确了其强调的可分离性，但超二元论的柏拉图是可以避免的，执意亲密联盟的灵魂与身体构成一个庞大正理念下的形式和此事。
The problem of dualism, however, was lifted into quite a new position in modern philosophy by Descartes.问题的二元对立，但是，解除到了不少新的职位，在现代哲学由笛卡儿。 Indeed, since his time it has been a topic of central interest in philosophical speculation.事实上，自他的时候，它一直是话题的中心利益，在哲学上的投机活动。 His handling of two distinct questions, the one epistemological, the other metaphysical, brought this about.他的处理，两个截然不同的问题，其中一个认识论外，其他形而上的，但也带来这一点。 The mind stands in a cognitional relation to the external world, and in a causal relation to the changes within the body.心主张在一个认知关系到外部世界，并在一类因果关系的变化，内部机构。 What is the precise nature of each of these relations?什么是确切性质每一个这些关系？ According to Descartes the soul is res cogitans.据笛卡儿灵魂，是第cogitans 。 Its essence is thought.其实质是思想。 It is simple and unextended.它是简单和未扩展。 It has nothing in common with the body, but is connected with it in a single point, the pineal gland in the centre of the brain.它没有任何共同之处，与组织，但与其有联系，它在一个单一的点，松果腺在该中心的大脑。 In contrast with this, the essence of matter lies in extension.相比之下，与这一点，本质上的问题在于延长。 So the two forms of being are utterly disparate.因此，这两种形式的福祉，是完全不相干的。 Consequently the union between them is of an accidental or extrinsic character.因此该联盟它们之间是一种偶然或外在性格。 Descartes thus approximates to the Platonic conception of charioteer and chariot.因此，笛卡尔接近柏拉图式的构想charioteer和马车。 Soul and body are really two merely allied beings.灵魂和身体是可以分开两个只是盟军。 How then do they interact?又哪来的，他们的互动？ Real reciprocal influence or causal interaction seems impossible between two such disparate things.实时交互影响或因果互动，似乎是不可能的两个互不相干这种事情。 Geulincx and other disciples of Descartes were driven to invent the hypothesis of occasionalism and Divine assistance, according to which it is God Himself who effects the appropriate change in either body or mind on the occasion of the corresponding change in the other.赫林克斯和其他弟子笛卡尔，被驱赶的发明假说occasionalism和神圣的援助，根据它就是天主自己的人的影响，适当的改变，无论是身体或态度之际，相应的变化，在其他。 For this system of miraculous interferences Leibniz substituted the theory of pre-established harmony according to which God has coupled pairs of bodies and souls which are destined to run in parallel series of changes like two clocks started together.这个系统的奇迹般的干扰莱布尼茨取代的理论，预先确定的和谐，根据该上帝再加上对身体和灵魂，这是注定要并行运行一系列变化，就像两个时钟开始在一起。 The same insoluble difficulty of psycho-physical parallelism remains on the hands of those psychologists and philosophers at the present day who reject the doctrine of the soul as a real being capable of acting on the body which it informs.同时溶性困难的心理-物理排比仍然掌握在那些心理学家和哲学家，在现今社会，他们拒绝教条的灵魂，是一个真正能够作用于人体，它通知。 The ultra-dualism of Descartes was immediately followed on the Continent by the pantheistic monism of Spinoza, which identified mind and matter in one infinite substance of which they are merely "modes."超二元笛卡尔紧接着就大陆所pantheistic一元论斯宾诺莎，其中列出了心与物，在一个无限大的物质，其中，目前仅止于"模式" 。
The cognitional question Descartes solves by a theory of knowledge according to which the mind immediately perceives only its own ideas or modifications.这个认知问题，笛卡尔解决了一个知识论根据该意见立即想起感觉只有自己的主张或修改。 The belief in an external world corresponding to these ideas is of the nature of an inference, and the guaranteeing of this inference or the construction of a reliable bridge from the subjective world of thought to the objective world of material being, was thenceforth the main problem of modern philosophy.相信，在外部世界所对应的这些想法是何种性质的一个推论，并保障这一推断或建造一个可靠的桥梁，从主观世界的思想对客观世界的物质，被此后的主要问题现代哲学。 Locke similarly taught that the mind immediately apprehends only its own ideas, but he assumed a real external world which corresponds to these ideas, at least as regards the primary qualities of matter.骆家辉同样告诉我们，该会立即想起逮捕只是自己的想法，但是他就任一个真正的外部世界，这相当于这些想法，至少至于小学素质的事。 Berkeley, accepting Locke's assumption that the mind immediately cognizes only its own ideas, raised the question: What grounds have we for believing in the existence of a material world corresponding to those ideas?伯克利分校，接受洛克的假设，即会立即想起cognizes只有自己的主张，提出了一个问题：以什么理由，我们相信，在存在着一个物质世界对应的这些想法吗？ He concludes that there are none.他的结论是，没有人反对。 The external cause of these ideas is God Who awakens them in our minds by regular laws.外部原因，这些主张是上帝的人，警醒他们在我们的脑海中，由普通法律。 The dualistic opposition between mind and matter is thus got rid of by denying an independent material world.二元对立，心与物，因此被整肃，否认一个独立的物质世界。 But Berkeley still postulates multitude of real substantial minds distinct from each other and apparently from God.但柏克莱仍假设千头万绪，确实有实质的头脑有别于对方，显然是来自上帝。 We have thus idealistic pluralism.我们就此理想化多元化。 Hume carried Berkeley's scepticism a step farther and denied the existence of permanent spiritual substances, or minds, for grounds similar to those on which Berkeley rejected material substances.休姆进行伯克利分校的怀疑论的一个步骤，越走越否认存在永久的精神物质，或头脑，为理由类似，以对其中伯克利分校拒绝物质的物质。 All we know to exist are ideas of greater or less vividness.我们都知道存在，是思想大或更少形象化。 Kant repudiates this more extreme scepticism and adopts, at least in the second edition of his chief work, a form of dualism based on the distinction of phenomena and noumena.康德否定这更极端怀疑的态度和所采取的，至少在第二版他的主要工作是一种形式的二元对立的基础上，区分现象和本体。 The mind immediately perceives only its own representations.该会立即想起感觉只有自己的陈述。 These are modified by innate mental forms.这些都是修饰的先天心理形式。 They present to us only phenomena.他们向我们提出的唯一的现象。 But the noumena, the things-in-themselves, the external causes of these phenomenal representations, are beyond our power of cognition.但本体，事物在自己，是外部原因，这些惊人的交涉，超出了我们的权力认知。 Fichte rejected things-in-themselves outside the mind, and reduced the Kantian dualism to idealistic monism.费希特拒绝的东西在自己以外的思想，并减少了康德的二元论，以理想主义的一元论。 The strongest and most consistent defenders of dualism in modern philosophy have been the Scotch School, including Reid, Stuart, and Hamilton.最强大和最一致的捍卫者的二元论，在近代哲学一直是苏格兰的学校，包括里德，斯图尔特和汉密尔顿。 Among English writers in more recent times Martineau, McCosh, Mivart, and Case have carried on the same tradition on similar lines.其中英语作家在近期martineau ， mccosh ，米瓦特，案件已进行了相同的传统，就同样的意思。
The problem of dualism, as its history suggests, involves two main questions:问题的二元论，因为它的历史表明，涉及两个主要问题：
Does there exist a material world outside of our minds and independent of our thought?是否存在的物质世界之外的头脑和独立的思考吗？
Supposing such a world to exist, how does the mind attain to the cognition of it?假设这样一个世界存在的话，如何得知是否介意，以达到认识的？
The former question belongs to epistemology, material logic, or general philosophy; the latter to psychology.前一问题属于认识论，材料逻辑，或一般的哲学，后者以心理学。 It is true that dualism is ultimately rejected by the materialist who reduces conscious states to functions, or "aspects" of the brain; but objections from this standpoint will be more suitably dealt with under materialism and monism.这是事实二元论，最终否决了唯物主义的人，降低意识到国家职能，或"方面"的大脑，但反对从这个观点出发，将较适合处理下唯物论和一元论。 The idealist theory since Berkeley, in all its forms, maintains that the mind can only know its own states or representations, and that what we suppose to be an independent, material world is, in the last analysis, only a series of ideas and sensations plus belief in the possibility of other sensations.唯心主义的理论，因为伯克利分校，在其所有形式，主张心能只知道自己的国家或交涉，并表示，我们假设成为一个独立的，物质世界的是，在最后的分析中，只有一连串的想法和感觉加上信仰的可能性，其他的感觉。 Our conviction of the objective reality of a vivid consistent dream is analogous to our conviction of the validity of our waking experience.我们的信念，对客观现实的一个生动一致的梦想，就是类似于我们的信念的有效性，我们醒来的经验。 Dualism affirms, in opposition to all forms of idealism, the independent, extramental reality of the material world.二元申明，反对一切形式的唯心主义，独立， extramental现实的物质世界。 Among its chief arguments are the following:其行政论点有以下几方面：
Our belief in the existence of other minds is an inference from their bodies.我们的信仰是在存在其他一些头脑，是一种推理，从他们的尸体。 Consequently the denial of an external material world involves the rejection of all evidence for the existence of other minds, and lands the idealist in the position of "Solipsism".因此否定外部物质世界，涉及到拒绝一切证据存在其他一些头脑，地政唯心主义中的位置" solipsism " 。
Physical science assumes the existence of a material world, existing when unperceived, possessing various properties, and exerting various powers according to definite constant laws.物理科学假设存在着一个物质世界，现行的时候， unperceived ，就必须具备各种性能，并施加各种权力按照一定的恒定规律。 Thus astronomy describes the movements of heavenly bodies moving in space of three dimensions, attracting each other with forces inversely proportioned to the square of the distance.因此天文学描述变动的天体运动，在太空的三个层面，吸引对方势力成反比相称，广场上的距离。 It postulates the movement and action of such bodies when they are invisible as well as when they are visible through long periods of time and over vast areas of space.它假设的运动和行动的这类机构时，他们是无形的，以及当他们都是看得见，通过很长的时间，超过了大面积的空间。 From these assumptions it deduces future positions and foretells eclipses and transits many years ahead.从这些假设推导未来的立场，并预示着消失和过境许多岁月。 Observations carried out by subsequent generations verify the predictions.观测所进行的后代验证预言。 Were there not an extramental world whose parts exist and act in a space and time truly mirrored by our cognitions and ideas, such a result would be impossible.有没有一个extramental世界的部分存在和行为在一个空间和时间，真正反映了我们的认识和想法，这样的结果是不可能的。 The branches of science dealing with sound, light, heat, and electricity are equally irreconcilable with idealism.各分行的科学处理与声，光，热，电力等也同样不可调和的唯心论。 The teachings of physiology and psycho-physics become peculiarly absurd in the idealist theory.遗训的生理和心理物理学成为独有的荒谬唯心主义的理论。 What, for instance, is meant by saying that memory is dependent on modifications in the nervous substance of the brain, if all the material world, including the brain, is but a collection of mental states?什么，举例来说，是意味着说，记忆是依赖于修改，在神经物质的大脑，如果所有的物质世界，包括大脑，只不过是一个收集的心理状态呢？ Psychology similarly assumes the extramental reality of the human body in its account of the growth of the senses and the development of perception.心理学同样假设extramental现实的人的身体，在其交代的成长感官和发展的看法。 Were the idealist hypothesis true its language would be meaningless.被唯心主义的假说属实，其语言将毫无意义。 All branches of science thus presuppose and confirm the dualistic view of common sense.各分公司的科学是假定，并确认二元鉴于普通常识。
Granted, then, the truth of dualism, the psychological question emerges: How does the mind come to know the material world?理所当然的，那么，真理的二元论，心理问题出现：如何得知是否介意来认识物质世界？ Broadly speaking there are two answers.大致来说，有两个答案。 According to one the mind immediately perceives only its own representations or ideas and from these it infers external material objects as the cause of these ideas.据一位头脑立刻感觉到只有自己的陈述或想法，并从这些推断，它的外部物质物体产生这些想法。 According to the other, in some of its acts it immediately perceives extended objects or part of the material world.据另一方面，在它的一些行为，它立刻感觉到延长物体或部分的物质世界。 As Hamilton says: "What we directly apprehend is the Non-ego, not some modification of the Ego".正如汉密尔顿说： "这有什么，我们直接逮捕的，是不自我，而不是一些改装的自我" 。 The theory which maintains an immediate perception of the non-ego he calls natural dualism or natural realism.该理论还保持着一个切身感受非自我-他称之为自然的二元论或自然写实。 The other, which holds a mediate cognition of the non-ego, as the inferred cause of a representation immediately apprehended, he terms hypothetical dualism or hypothetical realism.另外，将他所持有的调解认知的非自我，为推断事业的一份意见书，立即逮捕，他的条件假设二元或假设的现实性。 The doctrine of immediate or presentative perception is that adopted by the great body of Scholastic philosophers and is embodied in the dictum that the idea, concept, or mental act of apprehension is non id quod percipitur sed medium quo res percipitur -- not that which is perceived but the medium by which the object itself is perceived.该学说的即时或presentative印象，就是通过大机构的学术哲学家和体现在这句格言的想法，概念或心理行为的顾虑，就是非身份证和percipitur的SED中等现状第percipitur -不认为这是知觉，但中等其中物体本身就是知觉。 This seems to be the only account of the nature of knowledge that does not lead logically to idealism; and the history of the subject confirms this view.这似乎是唯一的户口性质的知识，这并不导致逻辑上，以唯心论和历史主题证实了这一观点。 But affirmation of the mind's capacity for immediate perception of the non-ego and insistence on the distinction between id quod and id quo percipitur, do not dispose of the whole difficulty.但肯定的态度的能力，为即时的观感非自我，并坚持区别身份证和身份证及现状percipitur ，不处置的整个困难。 Modern psychology has become genetic.现代心理学已成为遗传。 Its interest centres in tracing the growth and development of cognition from the simplest and most elementary sensations of infancy.其利息中心追查增长和发展的认知能力，从最简单和最初级的感觉萌芽状态。 Analysis of the perceptive processes of a later age, eg apprehension of size, shape, solidity, distance, and other qualities of remote objects, proves that operations seemingly instantaneous and immediate may involve the activity of memory, imagination, judgment, reasoning, and subconscious contributions from the past experience of other senses.分析感知过程中，稍后年龄，例如逮捕的大小，形状，硬度，距离等诸多方面的素质远程对象，证明行动看似瞬间，并即时可能涉及的活动记忆，想象，判断，推理，并潜意识捐款，从过去的经验，其他感官。 There is thus much that is indirect and inferential in nearly all the percipient acts of mature life.因此，有许多是间接推断，在几乎所有percipient行为的成熟生活。 This should be frankly admitted by the defender of natural dualism, and the chief psychological problem for him at the present day is to sift and discriminate what is immediate and direct from what is mediate or representative in the admittedly complex cognitional operations of normal adult life.这应该坦率地承认，由后卫自然二元对立，而行政心理问题，他在现今社会，是筛选和歧视是什么即时直接从什么是调解或其代表在诚然复杂的认知运作正常的成人生活。
Publication information Written by Michael Maher.出版信息该书由Michael马希尔。 Transcribed by Robert H. Sarkissian.转录罗伯特每小时萨尔基相。 The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume V. Published 1909.天主教百科全书，体积诉公布1909年。 New York: Robert Appleton Company.纽约：罗伯特Appleton还公司。 Nihil Obstat, May 1, 1909. nihil obstat ， 1909年5月1日。 Remy Lafort, Censor.人头马lafort ，检查员。 Imprimatur. imprimatur 。 +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York +约翰米farley ，大主教纽约
Bibliography参考书目
IN FAVOUR OF NATURAL DUALISM:--RICKABY, First Principles of Knowledge (New York and London, 1901); CASE, Physical Realism (New York and London, 1881); UEBERWEG, Logic, tr.赞成自然的两重性： -r ickaby，第一性原理的知识（纽约和伦敦， 1 901年） ;案件，物理写实（纽约和伦敦， 1 881年） ; u eberweg，逻辑的T R。 (London, 1871); HAMILTON, Metaphysics (Edinburgh and London, 1877); McCOSH, Exam. （伦敦， 1871年） ;汉密尔顿，形而上学（爱丁堡和伦敦， 1877年） ; mccosh ，考试。 of Mill (New York, 1875); MARTINEAU, A Study of Religion (Oxford, 1888): MIVART, Nature and Thought (London, 1882); MAHER, Psychology (New York and London, 1908); FARGES, L'Objectivit de la Perception (Paris, 1891).磨机（纽约， 1875年） ; martineau ，研究宗教（牛津， 1888年） ：米瓦特，性质与思考（伦敦， 1882年） ;马希尔，心理学（纽约和伦敦， 1908年） ; farges法国objectivit德香格里拉观感（巴黎， 1891年） 。
AGAINST NATURAL DUALISM:--BERKELEY, Principles of Human Knowledge, ed.对自然的二元论： -伯克利分校和人权原则的知识，教育署。 FRASER (Oxford, 1871): ed.弗雷泽（牛津， 1871年） ：教育署。 KRAUTH (Philadelphia, 1874); MILL, An Exam. krauth （费城， 1874年） ;轧机，是一个考试。 of Sir W. Hamilton (London, 1865); BRADLEY, Appearance and Reality (New York and London, 1899).爵士小哈密尔顿（伦敦， 1865年） ;布拉德利，外观与现实（纽约和伦敦， 1899年） 。
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