Crucifixion was a method of execution used by the Romans to punish slaves and foreigners.在十字架上是一个执行方法使用的罗马，以惩罚奴隶和外国人。 Hung from a crossbar astride an upright peg, the naked victim was allowed to hang as a public spectacle until dead. No vital organs were damaged, and death was slow agony.洪从横梁分腿直立挂，赤裸受害人被允许坑作为一个公共眼镜，直至死亡。 并无重要器官被损坏，但与死亡是缓慢的痛苦。 Prior to crucifixion, the victim was scourged and made to carry the crossbar to the execution site. 之前在十字架上时，受害人scourged ，并提出进行了横梁到执行现场。 The crucifixion of Jesus Christ followed this order of events (Mark 15:15; John 19:17). 十字架上的耶稣遵循这条命令的事件 （马克15:15 ;约翰19时17分） 。
Though closely associated with Rome, crucifixion originated with the Phoenicians and Persians.虽然密切相关，与罗马，在十字架上源于腓尼基人和波斯人。 It was practiced from the 6th century BC until the 4th century AD.这是实行从6世纪到公元前4世纪的广告。 The Roman emperor Constantine I banned crucifixion in 337.罗马皇帝君士坦丁i禁止在十字架上337 。
Because Jesus was crucified, the Cross has assumed theological significance for Christians. 因为耶稣被钉在十字架上，两岸摆出神学意义，为基督徒。 It symbolizes reconciliation with God through faith in Christ (1 Cor. 1:18 - 25), whose life, death, and Resurrection are proof of God's forgiveness of human sin. 它象征着和解与上帝信仰基督（ 1肺心病。 1:18 -2 5） ，他们的生命，死亡，与复活证明了上帝的宽恕人的罪过。
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Even by Jesus' time, it is clear that they had developed "efficient" methods.连耶稣的时候，很清楚的说，他们研制的"高效率"的方式。 For example, on that day of the 2,000 crucifixions, it seems unlikely that the workers would have had the time to dig 2,000 holes and built 2,000 crosses, just for practical reasons.举例来说，那一天的2000年crucifixions ，这似乎不大可能，工人将有时间，挖孔， 2000年和2000年建成十字架，只为现实的原因。 The following articles indicate that it was extremely common for the upright pole to be left in place, at the standard location for the crucifixions, and that Jesus (and the others) almost certainly carried just the horizontal cross-bar, still a heavy burden.下列条款表明，它是非常普遍的正气极以留在地方，在标准位置为crucifixions ，耶稣（以及其他人） ，几乎可以肯定刚刚进行横向交叉酒吧，仍是一个沉重的负担。 Once there, the execution crew would have lifted Jesus and the cross-bar up onto the already vertical pole.一旦到了那里，执行人员将已解除耶稣和跨酒吧上已经垂直的木棍。
Most modern depictions of the Crucifixion show Jesus being quite high up, but that almost certainly was not the case.最现代的描写旷野里显示耶稣被相当高了，但几乎可以肯定是情况并非如此。 Victims of crucifixion generally had their feet just a foot or two above the ground.受害者在十字架上普遍对他们的脚刚一英尺或两个以上的地上。 Also, part of the "punishment" of crucifixion (and a visible example of that punishment for the community as a whole) was that it was generally an extended process.另外，部分的"惩罚"钉死在十字架上（和有形的例子，认为处罚，为社会作为一个整体） ，即它是一个普遍延长的过程。 One of the articles below even mention that some crosses had a small "seat" area to partially support the weight of the body, with the intent of extending the suffering further.其中下面的文章，甚至提一些跨越了一个小"座位"地区部分地支撑体重的身体，与原意延长痛苦。
These matters are confirmed by a variety of Jewish laws of the time.这些事情都证实了各种各样的犹太法律的规定时间。 Several dealt with the "official" ways of determining the moment of death such that the body could be taken down.几个处理的"正式"的方式确定，目前死亡的，例如该机构可予拆除。 Yev. yev 。 120b mentions that one of those methods of confirmation was when stray animals began to feed on the flesh of the feet and legs, which could be reached because of the legs being close to the ground. 120b提到，其中一人的方法确认时，流浪动物开始饲料对肉的脚和腿，它可以达成，因为腿贴近地面。 Oho. oho 。 3:5 mentions ways of determining when the blood had become impure. 3时05分提到如何确定时，血液已变得不纯。 Many other laws associated with crucifixion existed in Jewish law of the time.其他许多法律与存在钉死在十字架上，在犹太法律的时候。 Tosef, Git 7:1, Git 70b, describe how a person could get a divorce from a person being crucified. tosef ， git 7:1 ， git 70 B条，描述了如何一个人能得到的是脱离一个人被钉在十字架上。 Interestingly, Yev.有趣的是， yev 。 16:3, 15c, apparently allowed the possibility that a rich matron could "redeem" a person being crucified to become her husband! 16时03分， 15 C ，显然是不允许的可能性丰富的护士长可以"赎回"一个人被钉在十字架上，成为她的丈夫！
Also, a modern misconception is that the spikes were driven through the hands.同时，一个现代化的误解，是因为尖峰被逐出通过手中。 The Romans had discovered much earlier that the skin would just tear away and the person would fall from the cross.罗马人发现了更早，即皮肤会刚撕离和网站负责人将属于从十字架上。 The spikes were certainly driven through the wrist area, between some bones there.花穗当然驱动，通过手腕地区，在一些骨头。
Finally, as a confirmation of the reality of the Crucifixion of Jesus, Jewish records record the event.最后，证实了这一现实的十字架上的耶稣，犹太人记录记录这次活动。 In the Talmud, Sanh.在犹太法典， sanh 。 7:4 refers to Him being subjected to halakhah , being "hanged alive". 7时04分是指他受到哈拉哈 ，被"绞死"的内涵。 This, along with stoning, was the legal punishment for "leading others astray or practicing sorcery".正因如此，再加上用石头砸死，是法律的惩罚"的要求，领导别人误入歧途或练魔法" 。 Sanh. sanh 。 6:4 also refers to the event.六四，也指这项活动。
Crucifixion was a common mode of punishment among heathen nations in early times.在十字架上是一个共同的模式处罚当中异教徒国家在早期时代。 It is not certain whether it was known among the ancient Jews; probably it was not.这是不能确定是否有人知道古代犹太人大概事实并不是这样。 The modes of capital punishment according to the Mosaic law were, by the sword (Ex. 21), strangling, fire (Lev. 20), and stoning (Deut. 21).以何种方式执行死刑据镶嵌法，由剑（如： 21 ） ，绞杀，消防（ lev. 20 ） ，并用石头砸死（申命记21 ） 。 This was regarded as the most horrible form of death, and to a Jew it would acquire greater horror from the curse in Deut.这被视为是最可怕形式的死刑，并以一个犹太人，将获取更大的恐惧诅咒在deut 。 21:23. 21时23分。 This punishment began by subjecting the sufferer to scourging.这种处罚开始受到患者以scourging 。 In the case of our Lord, however, his scourging was rather before the sentence was passed upon him, and was inflicted by Pilate for the purpose, probably, of exciting pity and procuring his escape from further punishment (Luke 23:22; John 19:1).在案件我们的主，但是，他scourging相当前一句是通过他，并受到比拉多为目的，也许令人振奋的惋惜和采购逃生时，从进一步处罚（卢克23时22分;约翰19 ： 1 ） 。
The condemned one carried his own cross to the place of execution, which was outside the city, in some conspicuous place set apart for the purpose.该谴责一人拎着他自己的十字架上的地方执行，这是市外，在一些比较突出的地方，除设置为目的。 Before the nailing to the cross took place, a medicated cup of vinegar mixed with gall and myrrh (the sopor) was given, for the purpose of deadening the pangs of the sufferer.前钉在十字架上发生了，一个药杯醋混合胆石和没药（ sopor ）获得，为了隔阻不堪的患者。 Our Lord refused this cup, that his senses might be clear (Matt. 27:34).我们的主拒绝这一杯，他的理智可能清楚。 （ 27:34 ） 。 The spongeful of vinegar, sour wine, posca, the common drink of the Roman soldiers, which was put on a hyssop stalk and offered to our Lord in contemptuous pity (Matt. 27:48; Luke 23:36), he tasted to allay the agonies of his thirst (John 19:29).该spongeful食醋，酸，酒，波斯卡，共同饮酒的罗马士兵，其中被放到了一个hyssop秸秆，并提供给我们的主在藐视可惜。 （ 27:48 ;卢克23时36分） ，他饱尝了平息痛苦的，他干渴（约翰19时29分） 。 The accounts given of the crucifixion of our Lord are in entire agreement with the customs and practices of the Roman in such cases.该账户给予的旷野里的我们的主是在全部协议与习俗和惯例，罗马在这种情况下。 He was crucified between two "malefactors" (Isa. 53:12; Luke 23:32), and was watched by a party of four soldiers (John 19:23; Matt. 27:36, 54), with their centurion.他被钉在十字架上两个" malefactors " （以赛亚书53:12 ;卢克23时32分） ，并观看了由党的4名士兵（约翰19时23分;马特。 27:36 ， 54岁） ，其百人。
The "breaking of the legs" of the malefactors was intended to hasten death, and put them out of misery (John 19:31); but the unusual rapidity of our Lord's death (19:33) was due to his previous sufferings and his great mental anguish. "给打破了腿"的malefactors用意是加快死刑，并把他们走出苦难（约翰19时31分） ，不过，这个不寻常的速度快于我们的主之死（ 19时33分） ，是因为他过去的苦难和他的伟大的精神痛苦。 The omission of the breaking of his legs was the fulfilment of a type (Ex. 12:46).遗漏打破了他的双腿是实现A型（例如： 12时46分） 。 He literally died of a broken heart, a ruptured heart, and hence the flowing of blood and water from the wound made by the soldier's spear (John 19:34).他从字面上死于破碎的心，一个破裂的心，并因此流的血和水从伤口是由士兵的矛（约翰19时34分） 。 Our Lord uttered seven memorable words from the cross, namely, (1) Luke 23:34; (2) 23:43; (3) John 19:26; (4) Matt.我们的主说出了七个难忘的话从十字架上，即（ 1 ）路加福音23时34分， （ 2 ） 23时43分（ 3 ）约翰19时26分， （ 4 ）马特。 27:46, Mark 15:34; (5) John 19:28; (6) 19:30; (7) Luke 23:46. 27:46 ，马克15:34 （ 5 ）约翰19时28分（ 6 ） 19:30 （ 7 ）路加福音23:46 。
(Easton Illustrated Dictionary) （伊斯顿说明字典）
The Greek word for "cross," stauros, literally refers to an upright, pointed stake or pale.在希腊语意为"交叉" ， stauros ，从字面上是指一个正直的，是指股份或面色苍白。 The word xylon is usually "wood" or "tree."字xylon通常是"木"或"树" 。 In the NT and in some other literature of the time both frequently refer to a particularly cruel and degrading form of capital punishment known as crucifixion.在新台币，并在其他一些文学的时候都经常提到一个特别残忍及有辱人格的方式执行死刑称为钉死在十字架上。 In both canonical and later Christian literature "cross" and "crucifixion" take on a particularly important significance because of their connection with the death of Jesus and his expectations of his disciples.在这两个典型，以及后来的基督教文学的"跨" ， "十字架上" ，就一定能出现一个有着特别重要的意义，因为他们涉嫌与死亡的耶稣和他的期望，他的弟子。 Any understanding of crucifixion in the ancient world must include the facts related to the act itself, its effect upon the victim, and the sociocultural implications attached to it.任何了解的是受难日，在古代世界，必须包括有关的事实行为本身，其效果后，受害人和社会文化的影响，重视它。
Earlier forms probably involved impaling the condemned on a single pole or suspending him by wedging the head between a "Y" at one end of the implement.较早前形式可能涉及impaling了谴责，对单极或暂停他的楔入头部之间的一个" Y "型在一端的实施。 By NT times there seem to have been several different forms of "crosses" commonly used by the Romans.由新台币时代似乎已经有若干不同形式的"十字架" ，普遍采用了罗马。 In addition to the single pole (crux simplex), most involved the use of at least two separate pieces of wood to construct a frame.此外，以单杆（症结单纯形） ，其中大多数涉及使用至少有两个独立的块材，以构建一个框架。 However, crucifixion gave executioners opportunity to use their most cruel and sadistic creativity; victims were occasionally hung in grotesque positions by a variety of means.然而，在十字架上了刽子手机会，利用自己最残忍的虐待狂和创造力;受害者是偶尔挂在怪诞的立场受到各种法律途径解决问题。 The two cross forms most likely used for the execution of Jesus are the St. Anthony's cross (crux commissa), shaped like a "T," or the Latin cross (crux immissa), on which the vertical piece rises above both the horizontal cross-bar (patibulum) and the head of the victim; the statement in Matt.两条过形式最有可能用于执行耶稣是圣安多尼的交叉（症结commissa ） ，形状像一个的" T " ，或者拉丁语交叉（症结immissa ） ，而垂直件上升到高于无论是横向交叉-酒吧（ patibulum ）和抬头的受害者;陈述马特。 27:37 (cf. Luke 23:38) that the inscription was placed "over his head" and most ancient tradition favor the latter. 27:37 （参见卢克23时38分）说，该碑文被置于"他的头" ，最古老的传统，有利于后者。
Detailed descriptions of crucifixion are few; writers seem to have avoided the subject.详细说明钉死在十字架上，是少数;作家似乎都避开这一话题。 Recent archaeological discoveries, including skeletal remains of a crucifixion in first century Palestine (at Giv'at ha-Mivtar in Jerusalem), have added considerably to knowledge of the act. It seems that the Gospel accounts of the death of Jesus describe a standard Roman procedure for crucifixion.最近的考古发现，包括遗骸一个十字架上，在第一世纪的巴勒斯坦（ giv'at夏mivtar在耶路撒冷） ，更增添了相当知识的行为，这似乎与福音的帐目死亡耶稣描述一个标准的罗马程序钉死在十字架上。 After the pronouncement of sentence, the condemned was required to carry the horizontal piece to the place of execution, always outside the city. The leader of the four-man execution squad led the procession bearing a sign detailing the reason for the execution. 后宣判刑期，谴责是必须进行横向一块给地方执行时，总是在城外。领导人4名男子执行小分队，带领游行队伍轴承的标志，详细说明原因，对于执行。 There the victim was flogged (this seems to have preceded condemnation in the case of Jesus, possibly to elicit sympathy). The victim's outstretched arms were affixed to the cross-bar by either nails or ropes.有受害人被鞭打（这似乎已经先谴责在案件耶稣，可能是为了激发同情） 。 受害人的outstretched手臂贴在两岸酒吧，无论钉子或绳索。 This was then raised and secured to the perpendicular pole (which in some areas may have been left in place permanently, both for convenience and as a warning). A small board or peg may have been provided as sort of a seat to bear some of the weight of the condemned (this actually may have prolonged suffering by prohibiting suffocation). 这是当时提出的担保，以垂直极点 （ 这在某些地区可能已被遗留在永久地方，无论是为方便起见，并作为警示） ，一个小板或挂，可能已提供作为排序的一个席位，以负部分重量的谴责（这实际上可能延长痛苦，禁止窒息） 。 The feet were then secured in a manner forcing the knees into a bent position. Contrary to popular contemporary opinion, crosses were not high; the feet were probably only a few inches above the ground. The sign describing the accusation was secured to the cross.脚，然后在担保方式，强迫跪成一类Bent立场。 违背了当代流行的见解，十字架不高;脚，大概只有几英寸以上的地上。标志描述的指控毫无根据担保在十字架上。
Death usually came slowly; it was not unusual for persons to survive for days on the cross. Exposure, disease, hunger, shock, and exhaustion were the usual immediate causes of death. 死刑通常较慢，这是很平常的人的生存，为将于10月14日在十字架上。曝光，疾病，饥饿，休克，并用尽人惯常立即死亡的一个主要原因。 Occasionally death was "mercifully" hastened by breaking the legs of the condemned.偶尔死因是"仁慈"所催生的腿打断了谴责。 In Jesus' case death came much more swiftly than usual.在耶稣的死亡案例来更为迅速比平时多。 A spear was thrust into his side to assure he was really dead before the body was removed (John 19:31-37). Bodies of the crucified were often left unburied and eaten by carnivorous birds and beasts, thus adding to the disgrace.矛是推力到他身边，以保证他是真的死之前，尸体被移走（约翰19:31-37 ） 。 尸体被钉十字架的人，往往留下未掩埋，并吃掉食虫鸟类和兽类，从而增加了向以为耻。
The social stigma and disgrace associated with crucifixion in the ancient world can hardly be overstated.社会的耻辱和丢脸的相关钉死在十字架上，在古代世界很难过。 It was usually reserved for slaves, criminals of the worst sort from the lowest levels of society, military deserters, and especially traitors.它通常是预留作奴隶，罪犯的最坏排序从最低层次的社会，军队的逃兵，尤其是叛徒。 In only rare cases were Roman citizens, no matter what their crime, crucified.仅在罕见的情况下被罗马公民，不论是干哪一行的犯罪，被钉十字架。 Among the Jews it carried an additional stigma. Deut.其中犹太人进行额外的耻辱。 deut 。 21:23, "A hanged man is accursed by God," was understood to mean that the very method of death brought a divine curse upon the crucified. Thus, the idea of a crucified Messiah posed a special problem for such Jews as Paul (cf. Gal. 3:13; 1 Cor. 1:27-29). 14:28 ， "上吊人是谴责的，由上帝"的理解，就是认为非常方法去世，使神的诅咒后，被钉十字架，因此，构思一个钉在十字架上的救世主构成的一个特殊问题，如犹太人正如保罗（比照加尔。 3时13分， 1肺心病。 1:27-29 ） 。
The cross is also the symbol of discipleship.十字架的道理，也象征门徒。 To first century Palestinians, who often witnessed the condemned carrying the crossbar to the site of their final torture, Jesus' word, "If any man will come after me, let him take up his cross and follow me" (Mark 8:34; cf. Matt. 10:38; Luke 14:27), must have come with a jolting, graphic impact.以第一世纪的巴勒斯坦人，他们往往目击谴责进行了横梁到现场了他们的最后酷刑，耶稣的一句话， "如果有任何人会在我之后，让他背着他的十字架跟从我" （马克8时34分;比照马特。 10:38 ;卢克14时27分） ，必须配备一个颠簸，图形的影响。 Jesus insists that the humiliation and suffering that culminated in his crucifixion were to characterize the experience of his followers.耶稣坚持认为，屈辱和痛苦，最终导致他被钉死在十字架上，以特有的经验，他的追随者。 "It is," he says, "for the disciple to be like his teacher" (Matt. 10:24). "这是" ，他说， "对于弟子，要像他的老师" 。 （ 10:24 ） 。 Crucifixion becomes a part of the identification between Christ and the believer who is "crucified with Christ" (Gal. 2:20).在十字架上，成为部分的鉴定之间的基督信徒，他们是"被钉十字架与基督" （ gal. 2时20分） 。 The negative side of the characteristics of the new life of the Christian consists in having "crucified" sinful natures and desires (Gal. 5:24).消极方面的特征的新生活的基督徒组成，在具有"钉在十字架上"罪孽深重的天性和欲望（ gal. 5时24分） 。
When understood in its historical, social context, Paul's statement that the proclamation of Christ crucified is a "stumbling block" or "scandal" (skandalon) to the Jews and "foolishness" (moria) to the Gentiles is both logical and clear.当了解其历史，社会背景下，保罗的声明中表示，宣布基督钉在十字架上是一个"绊脚石"或"丑闻" （ skandalon ）向犹太人和"愚蠢" （ moria ）外邦人既符合逻辑和清晰的。 Yet for Christians it remains an act and demonstration "of the power and wisdom of God" (1 Cor. 1:23-24).不过，对基督徒，它仍然是一个行为与示范"的力量和智慧凝聚起来，以神之名" （ 1肺心病。 1:23-24 ） 。
JJ Scott,
Jr.斯科特的JJ小
(Elwell Evangelical Dictionary)
（ Elwell宣布了福音字典）
Bibliography
参考书目
B. Siede et al.,
NIDNTT, I, 389-405; JF Strange, IDB Supplement, 199-200; M. Hengel,
Crucifixion.乙siede等人， nidntt ，我， 389-405 ;怡富奇怪，美洲开发银行补充， 199-200
;米亨格尔，钉死在十字架上。
Crucify signifies (a) "the act of crucifixion," eg, Matt.钉死标志（一） " ，该法的十字架上， "例如，马特。 20:19; (b) metaphorically, "the putting off of the flesh with its passions and lusts," a condition fulfilled in the case of those who are "of Christ Jesus," Gal. 20时19分; （二）比喻， "拖的肉体的激情与性欲， "一个条件满足的情况下，这些人是"基督耶稣的， "加尔。 5:24, RV; so of the relationship between the believer and the world, 6:14. 5时24分，风疹病毒，所以对关系的信奉者和世界上6时14分。
"to crucify with" (su, "for," sun, "with"), is used (a) of actual "crucifixion" in company with another, Matt. "钉死" （苏" ， "太阳" ， " ） ，是用（一）实际的"十字架上" ，在公司与另一，马特。 27:44; Mark 15:32; John 19:32 (b) metaphorically, of spiritual identification with Christ in His death, Rom. 27:44 ;大关15:32 ;约翰19时32分（二）比喻，精神鉴定与基督，在他死后，光盘。 6:6, and Gal. 6时06分，和GAL 。 2:20. 2时20分。
(ana, again) is used in Heb. （全日空，再次） ，是用来在希伯来书。 6:6 of Hebrew apostates, who as merely nominal Christians, in turning back to Judaism, were thereby virtually guilty of "crucifying" Christ again. 6时06分的希伯来语叛教者，他们作为有名无实的基督徒，在回到犹太教，因而几乎犯有"人钉在十字架上"基督。
Crucifixion was the act of putting to death by nailing or binding to a cross.被钉死在十字架上的行为将死钉或有约束力的，以在十字架上。 Among the modes of Capital Punishment known to the Jewish penal law, crucifixion is not found; the "hanging" of criminals "on a tree," mentioned in Deut.其中以何种方式执行死刑已知犹太刑法，在十字架上是没有找到; "挂"罪犯"一棵树"中提到的deut 。 xxi.二十一。 22, was resorted to in New Testament times only after lapidation (Sanh. vi. 4; Sifre, ii. 221, ed. Friedmann, Vienna, 1864).二十二岁，以在新约圣经时代后，才lapidation （ sanh.六，四; sifre ，二221 ，教育署。弗里德曼，维也纳， 1864 ） 。 A Jewish court could not have passed a sentence of death by crucifixion without violating the Jewish law.一个犹太法院不能过去了，判处死刑，由钉死在十字架上，没有任何违反犹太法律。 The Roman penal code recognized this cruel penalty from remote times (Aurelius Victor Cæsar, 41).罗马刑法承认这种残酷的刑罚从偏远倍（奥勒胜利者cæsar ， 41 ） 。 It may have developed out of the primitive custom of "hanging" ("arbori suspendere") on the "arbor infelix," which was dedicated to the gods of the nether world.它可能已经发展出来的原始习俗， "挂" （下称" arbori suspendere " ） ，对"乔木infelix " ，这是奉献给神的幽明。 Seneca ("Epistola," 101) still calls the cross "infelix lignum."塞涅卡（ " epistola ， " 101 ）仍呼吁两岸" infelix lignum " 。 Trees were often used for crucifying convicts (Tertullian, "Apologia," viii. 16).树木常被用来钉在十字架上被定罪（戴尔都良， "纵容" ，八16 ） 。 Originally only slaves were crucified; hence "death on the cross" and "supplicium servile" were used indiscriminately (Tacitus, "Historia," iv. 3, 11).原本只有奴隶被钉在十字架上，因此有了"十字架上的死亡"和" supplicium奴性"的人，拿来就用（塔西佗， "历史" ，四，三， 11 ） 。 Later, provincial freedmen of obscure station ("humiles") were added to the class liable to this sentence.后来，省freedmen朦胧诗站（下称" humiles " ） ，被列入本级，可这句话。 Roman citizens were exempt under all circumstances (Cicero, "Verr." i. 7; iii. 2, 24, 26; iv. 10 et seq.).罗马公民被免除任何情况下，都（西塞罗， " verr "一，七;三，二， 24日， 26日;四， 10页起） 。 The following crimes entailed this penalty: piracy, highway robbery, assassination, forgery, false testimony, mutiny, high treason, rebellion (see Pauly-Wissowa, "Real-Encyc." sv "Crux"; Josephus, "BJ" v. 11, § 1).下列犯罪造成这种惩罚：盗版，公路抢劫，暗杀，伪造，虚假的证词，叛变，叛国，叛乱（见Pauly ） -维索瓦， "实时encyc " sv "症结" ;约瑟夫， " BJ的"五。 11 ， § 1 ） 。 Soldiers that deserted to the enemy and slaves who denounced their masters ("delatio domini")were also punished by death on the cross.士兵遗弃向敌和奴隶，他们谴责他们的主人（ " delatio多米尼" ）也被处以十字架上的死亡。
Mode of Execution.执行方式。
The crosses used were of different shapes.十字架所用的不同形状。 Some were in the form of a , others in that of a St. Andrew's cross, , while others again were in four parts, .一些人的形式，别人在这一个圣安德鲁的十字架，而另一些又被分为四个部分， 。 The more common kind consisted of a stake ("palus") firmly embedded in the ground ("crucem figere") before the condemned arrived at the place of execution (Cicero, "Verr." v. 12; Josephus, "BJ" vii. 6, § 4) and a cross-beam ("patibulum"), bearing the "titulus"-the inscription naming the crime (Matt. xxvii. 37; Luke xxiii. 38; Suetonius, "Cal." 38).较常见的实物构成的股权（简称"沼泽" ） ，已深深印在地面上（ " crucem figere " ）之前谴责到达地点执行（西塞罗， " verr "五， 12岁;约瑟夫， " BJ的"七6 ， § 4 ）及跨梁（ " patibulum " ） ，印有"职称"的题词命名犯罪。 （二十七。 37 ;路加福音二十三。 38 ;苏埃托尼乌斯， "华航" ， 38 ） 。 It was this cross-beam, not the heavy stake, which the condemned was compelled to carry to the scene of execution (Plutarch, "De Sera Num. Vind." 9; Matt. ib.; John xix. 17; See Cross).正是由于这种跨梁，而不是沉重的股份，其中谴责被迫进行了现场的执行（普鲁塔克， "德血清序号。 vind " 9 ;马特。兴业;约翰十九。 17 ;见交叉） 。 The cross was not very high, and the sentenced man could without difficulty be drawn up with ropes ("in crucem tollere, agere, dare, ferre").两岸是不是很高，但和被判刑人，可以毫无困难地得出了与绳索（ " crucem tollere ，杰尔，不敢， ferre " ） 。 His hands and feet were fastened with nails to the cross-beam and stake (Tertullian, "Adv. Judæos," 10; Seneca, "Vita Beata," 19); though it has been held that, as in Egypt, the hands and feet were merely bound with ropes (see Winer, "BR" i. 678).他的手和脚也被系上铁钉，以跨梁和股份（戴尔都良， "副judæos " ， 10岁;塞涅卡， "履历表贝娅塔" ， 19 ） ;尽管它已举办了，因为在埃及，双手和脚也被约束，只是用绳子（见温特， "溴"一678 ） 。 The execution was always preceded by flagellation (Livy, xxxiv. 26; Josephus, "BJ" ii. 14, § 9; v. 11, § 1); and on his way to his doom, led through the most populous streets, the delinquent was exposed to insult and injury.预算执行情况是总是先flagellation （ livy ，三十四， 26人;约瑟夫， " BJ的"二14 § 9 ;诉11条第1款）和关于他的方式，以他的末日将要来临，主导通过人口最多的街道，犯事暴露了侮辱和伤害。 Upon arrival at the stake, his clothes were removed, and the execution took place.抵达后，在股权，他的衣服被拆除，预算执行情况发生。 Death was probably caused by starvation or exhaustion, the cramped position of the body causing fearful tortures, and ultimately gradual paralysis.死因可能是造成饥饿或疲劳，拥挤的立场身体造成可怕的折磨，并最终逐渐陷入瘫痪。 Whether a foot-rest was provided is open to doubt; but usually the body was placed astride a board ("sedile").是否使用脚休息提供了开放疑问，但通常的尸体被放在首次发起委员会（以下简称"塞迪莱" ） 。 The agony lasted at least twelve hours, in some cases as long as three days.痛苦持续了至少12个小时，在某些情况下，只要3天。 To hasten death the legs were broken, and this was considered an act of clemency (Cicero, "Phil." xiii. 27).催生死亡双腿被打断，而这被认为是一个行为宽大处理（西塞罗， "菲尔"十三27 ） 。 The body remained on the cross, food for birds of prey until it rotted, or was cast before wild beasts.身体仍然在十字架上，为粮食猛禽直到它腐烂，或投了前野兽。 Special permission to remove the body was occasionally granted.特别许可，以消除身体偶尔被理所当然的。 Officers (carnifex and triumviri) and soldiers were in charge.主席团成员（ carnifex和triumviri ）和士兵负责。
This cruel way of carrying into effect the sentence of death was introduced into Palestine by the Romans.这种残酷的方式进行生效判处死刑引入巴勒斯坦入乡随俗。 Josephus brands the first crucifixion as an act of unusual cruelty ("Ant." xiii. 14, § 2), and as illegal.约瑟夫品牌首次在十字架上，作为法具有非同寻常的残酷性（ "蚂蚁" 。十三。 14 ， § 2 ） ，并为非法的。 But many Jews underwent this extreme penalty (ib. xx. 6, § 2; "Vita," § 75; "BJ" ii. 12, § 6; 14, § 9; v. 11, § 1; Philo, ii. 529).但许多犹太人经历了这一极端刑罚（ ib.二十。 6 ， § 2 ， "履历表" ，第75条; " BJ的"二12 ， § 6 ， 14 ，第9条;诉11条第1款;斐洛，二。 529 ） 。
During the times of unrest which preceded the rise in open rebellion against Rome (about 30-66 BC), "rebels" met with short shrift at the hands of the oppressor.在时代的动乱之前的崛起，在开放的反抗罗马（约公元前30-66 ） ， "造反派"见了不理会在手中的压迫者。 They were crucified as traitors.他们被钉在十字架上视为叛徒。 The sons of Judas the Galilean were among those who suffered this fate.儿子犹大伽利略属于那些遭受这种命运。 The details given in the New Testament accounts (Matt. xxvii. and parallels) of the crucifixion of Jesus agree on the whole with the procedure in vogue under Roman law.这本册子的，在新约圣经的帐户。 （二十七和平行线）的十字架上的耶稣同意，就整体而言，与程序盛行下罗马法。 Two modifications are worthy of note: (1) In order to make him insensible to pain, a drink (ὁξος, Matt. xxvii. 34, 48; John xix. 29) was given him.两项修改，是值得考虑的问题： （ 1 ）为了使他理智的痛楚，饮料（ ὁξος ，马特。二十七。 34 ， 48 ;约翰十九29 ） ，是给了他。 This was in accordance with the humane Jewish provision (see Maimonides, "Yad," Sanh. xiii. 2; Sanh. 43a).这是根据人道犹太条文（见迈蒙尼德， "亚得" ， sanh 。十三。 2 ; sanh 。 43 A条） 。 The beverage was a mixture of myrrh () and wine, given "so that the delinquent might lose clear consciousness through the ensuing intoxication."饮料是一种混合物没药（ ）和酒，给" ，使逾期可能会失去意识清楚，通过随后的中毒" 。 (2) Contrary to the Roman practise of leaving the body on the cross, that of Jesus was removed and buried, the latter act in keeping with Jewish law and custom. （ 2 ）相反，罗马练习离开组织，就两岸关系，也就是耶稣被拆除和掩埋，而后者的行为符合犹太法和习俗。 These exceptions, however, exhaust the incidents in the crucifixion of Jesus that might point to a participation therein, and a regulation thereof, by Jews or Jewish law.这些例外，不过，废气事件在十字架上的耶稣可能指向一个参与，和规例时，由犹太人或犹太法律。 The mode and manner of Jesus' death undoubtedly point to Roman customs and laws as the directive power.模式及方式，耶稣的死无疑点，以罗马习俗和法律，作为指令的权力。
From the Jewish point of view, the crime of which Jesus was convicted by the Jewish priests is greatly in doubt (see Jesus).从犹太人的角度来看，犯罪，其中，耶稣被定罪的犹太祭司，是极大疑问（见耶稣） 。 If it was blasphemy, lapidation should, according to Jewish law, have been the penalty, with suspension from the gallows after death (Mishnah Sanh. iii. 4; Sifre, iii. 221).如果这是亵渎， lapidation要按照犹太教的规定，一直都是罚款，暂停从绞刑后，死刑（ mishnah sanh三，四; sifre ，三， 221页） 。 Nor were any of the well-known measures taken (Sanh. vi.)which provide before execution for the contingency of a reversal of the sentence.也没有任何的知名度而采取的措施（ sanh.六） ，其中规定执行前，为应急逆转句子。 Neither was the "cross"-ie, the gallows for hanging-constructed as usual after lapidation, and as ordained in Sanhedrin vi.既不是"十字架" -即绞刑，为悬兴建如常后， lapidation ，并作为受戒在公会六。 4. 4 。 His hands were not bound as prescribed; the "cross" was not buried with his body (Maimonides, "Yad," Sanh. xv. 9).他的手是不是必然为明; "十字架" ，是不是埋在他的身体（迈蒙尼德， "亚得" ， sanh第十五9段） 。 Whether the Jewish law would have tolerated a threefold execution at one and the same time is more than uncertain (Sanh. vi. 4; Sifre, ii. 221).是否犹太法会容忍三倍执行，在同一个时间较不确定（ sanh.六，四; sifre ，二， 221页） 。
Date of Jesus' Crucifixion.日期为耶稣钉死在十字架上。
The greatest difficulty from the point of view of the Jewish penal procedure is presented by the day and time of the execution.最大的困难是从的角度来看，犹太刑法程序，是由白天的时间执行。 According to the Gospels, Jesus died on Friday, the eve of Sabbath.据福音书，耶稣死亡周五，除夕夜的安息日。
Yet on that day, in view of the approach of the Sabbath (or holiday), executions lasting until late in the afternoon were almost impossible (Sifre, ii. 221; Sanh. 35b; Mekilta to Wayaḳhel).然而，这一天，鉴于该办法的安息日（或假期） ，处决持久的，直到晚在下午的人，几乎是不可能的（ sifre ，二221 ; sanh 。 35 B ; mekilta以wayaḳhel ） 。 The Synoptics do not agree with John on the date of the month.该synoptics不同意约翰对日期的月份。 According to the latter he died on the 14th of Nisan, as though he were the paschal lamb; but executions were certainly not regular on the eve of a Jewish holiday.根据后，他对死亡的十四大尼散月14日，因为他虽然被逾越的羔羊，但被处决肯定不会经常对即将到来的犹太节日。 According to the Synoptics, the date of his death was the 15th of Nisan (first day of Passover), when again no execution could be held (Mishnah Sanh. iv. 1; and the commentaries: Yer. Sanh. ii. 3; Yer. Beẓ. v. 2; Ket. i. 1).据该synoptics ，日期，他的逝世是十五大尼散月14日（第一天的逾越节） ，当再没有执行可以如期举行（ mishnah sanh四。一日及评论文章：也门里亚尔。 sanh二。 3 ;也门里亚尔。 beẓ诉2 ; KET的一，一） 。 This discrepancy has given rise to various attempts at rectification.这个差异已经引起了各种尝试，在治理整顿。 That by Chwolson is the most ingenious, assuming that Jesus died on the 14th, and accounting for the error in Matthew by a mistranslation from the original Hebrew in Matt.即由奇沃尔松是最巧妙，假设耶稣死亡的十四大，占误差在马修一个误译从原来的希伯来语，在马特。 xxvi.二十六。 17 (, due to the omission of the first ; see his "Das Letzte Passamahl Christi," p. 13). 17 （因遗漏第一;见他的"之letzte passamahl圣体" ，第13页） 。 But even so, the whole artificial construction of the law regarding Passover when the 15th of Nisan was on Saturday, attempted by Chwolson, would not remove the difficulty of an execution occurring on Friday = eve of Sabbath and eve of holiday; and the body could not have been removed as late as the ninth hour (3 PM).但即使如此，整个人工建造该法关于逾越节时，第十五届尼散月14日是周六，企图由奇沃尔松，将不能消除困难的一次处决发生在周五=前夕安息日和夏娃的节日，以及机构可能不是已被调离迟至第九小时（下午三时） 。 Bodies of delinquents were not buried in private graves (Sanh. vi. 5), while that of Jesus was buried in a sepulcher belonging to Joseph of Arimathea.机构违法不埋在私人墓地（ sanh.六5 ） ，而耶稣被埋葬在一个sepulcher属于约瑟夫arimathea 。 Besides this, penal jurisdiction had been taken from the Sanhedrin in capital cases "forty years before the fall of the Temple."此外，刑事管辖权已经采取了由公会在死刑案件中的"四十年前的秋天，庙" 。
These facts show that the crucifixion of Jesus was an act of the Roman government.这些事实表明，在十字架上的耶稣的行为罗马政府。 That it was customary to liberate one sentenced to death on account of the holiday season is not corroborated by Jewish sources.这是习惯，以解放一判处死刑，是考虑到假日季节，是不是印证了犹太人的来源。 But many of the Jews suspected of Messianic ambitions had been nailed to the cross by Rome.但许多犹太人涉嫌救世主的野心已经被钉在十字架上，由罗马。 The Messiah, "king of the Jews," was a rebel in the estimation of Rome, and rebels were crucified (Suetonius, "Vespas." 4; "Claudius," xxv.; Josephus, "Ant." xx. 5, § 1; 8, § 6; Acts v. 36, 37).弥赛亚， "国王的犹太人" ，是一个反叛在估计罗马，和叛军被钉在十字架上（苏埃托尼乌斯， " vespas 。 " 4 " ;克劳狄斯， "二十五;约瑟夫， "蚂蚁"第XX 。 5 ， § 1 ，第8 ，第6条;行为诉36 ， 37 ） 。 The inscription on the cross of Jesus reveals the crime for which, according to Roman law, Jesus expired.碑文上的十字架的耶稣揭示了犯罪，而按罗马法，耶稣过期。 He was a rebel.他是一个叛乱分子。 Tacitus ("Annales," 54, 59) reports therefore without comment the fact that Jesus was crucified.塔西佗（下称"年鉴" ， 54 ， 59 ）报告，因此并没有表示意见事实，即耶稣被钉在十字架上。 For Romans no amplification was necessary.为入乡随俗，没有功放是必要的。 Pontius Pilate's part in the tragedy as told in the Gospels is that of a wretched coward; but this does not agree with his character, as recorded elsewhere (see Süchrer, "Gesch." Index, sv).祂比拉多的一部分，在这场悲剧中说，作为在福音的是一个可怜的懦夫;但这并不同意他的性格，为其他地方的记录（见süchrer ， " gesch "指数， sv ） 。 The other incidents in the New Testament report-the rending of the curtain, darkness (eclipse of the sun), the rising of the dead from their graves-are apocalyptic embellishments derived from Jewish Messianic eschatology.其他事件，在新约圣经报告-再现的窗帘，黑暗（偏食太阳） ，上升的死者从坟墓里-是世界末日装饰源自犹太救世主末世。 The so-called writs for the execution (see Mayer, "Die Rechte der Israeliten, Athener, und Römer," iii. 428, note 27) are spurious.那些所谓令状为执行（见Mayer表示，在"死rechte明镜israeliten ， athener ， und罗梅尔， "三， 428 ，注27 ）杂散。
Kaufmann Kohler,
Emil G. Hirsch考夫曼科勒，埃米尔g.赫希
Jewish Encyclopedia, published between
1901-1906.犹太百科全书出版1901年至1906年之间。
Bibliography
参考书目
Ludwig Philipson,
Haben die Juden Jesum Gekreuzigt?路德维希philipson ， haben模具juden jesum
gekreuzigt ？ 2d ed., reprint,
1902; Hirsch, The Crucifixion from the Jewish Point of View, Chicago, 1892;
Chwolson, Das Letzte Passamahl Christi, St. Petersburg, 1892; works of Jewish
historians, as Grätz, Jost, etc.; Schürer, Gesch.; commentaries on the
Gospels.KEGH第2版，再版， 1902年;赫希，旷野里，从犹太人的角度来看，芝加哥， 1892年;奇沃尔松之letzte
passamahl圣体，圣彼得斯堡， 1892年;工程的犹太历史学家，作为grätz ，约斯特等; schürer ， gesch
;评论对gospels.kegh
This subject presentation in the original English language这一主题演讲，在原有的英语
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