The Talmud (Hebrew for "teaching" or "study"), a vast compendium of Jewish law and lore, is a unique literary document - a sequel to the Hebrew Bible - and the basis of Jewish religious life.犹太法典（希伯来语为"教学"或"研究" ） ，广大汇编犹太法和传说，是一个独特的文学文件-续集以希伯来语圣经-和基础的犹太宗教生活。 It consists of the Mishnah and lengthy, rambling commentary called Gemara (Aramaic for "learning" or "tradition").它的mishnah和冗长，漫谈评所谓gemara （阿拉姆语为"学习型"或"传统" ） 。 There are two Gemaras - the Palestinian Gemara, a product of the 3d and 4th centuries AD, and the Babylonian Gemara, completed about 499, with some later additions.有两个gemaras -巴勒斯坦g emara，建立了产品的三维和第4次百年专案，并巴比伦g emara，完成约4 99个，与一些后来的增补。 Hence, there are two Talmuds: the Talmud Yerushalmi and the Talmud Babli.因此，有两个talmuds ：犹太法典yerushalmi和犹太法典babli 。 The latter, the Babylonian Talmud, remains for traditional Jews the final authority on the law.就后者而言，巴比伦犹太法典，仍然是传统犹太教徒的最后管理局就法。 The Mishnah is predominantly in Hebrew, the Gemaras largely in Aramaic.该mishnah主要是希伯来文， gemaras主要集中在阿拉姆语。 In addition to exhaustive and subtle discussions of civil, criminal, domestic, and ritual law, the Talmuds contain materials called haggadah ("narration") - statements on faith and morals, explanations of Bible verses, parables, and historical and legendary narratives.除了详尽和微妙的讨论中的民事，刑事，家庭，礼法， talmuds包含材料所谓haggadah （ "叙事" ） -报表上的信仰和道德，有文化，有解释圣经小诗， p arables，以及历史和传说中的叙述。
| BELIEVE 相信 Religious 宗教 Information 资讯 Source 源 web-site 网址： |
| Our List of 1,000 Religious Subjects 我们所列出的1000名宗教科目 |
| E-mail 电子邮箱 |
Bernard J Bamberger伯纳德j巴姆博格
Bibliography:
参考书目：
I Epstein, ed., The Babylonian Talmud
(1961); A Feinnsilver, ed., The Talmud Today (1980); M Mielziner, Introduction
to the Talmud (1969); CG Montefiore and H Loeww, A Rabbinic Anthology (1938); J
Neusner, The Talmud of the Land of Israel: An Introduction (1990); A Steinsaltz,
The Essential Talmud (1977) and The Talmud: A Reference Guide (1989); HL Strack,
Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash (1969); I Unterman, The Talmud: An
Analytical Guide (1985). i爱泼斯坦，版，巴比伦犹太法典（ 1961年） ; feinnsilver ，版，犹太法典今天（
1980年） ;米梅尔齐纳，介绍了这一犹太法典（ 1969年） ;的CG montefiore和H loeww ， rabbinic选集（ 1938年） ; j
neusner ，犹太法典的以色列土地上：导言（ 1990 ） ; steinsaltz ，基本犹太法典（ 1977年）和犹太法典：一个参考指南（ 1989年）
;的HL strack ，介绍了这一犹太法典和midrash （ 1969年） ; i温特曼，犹太法典：一个分析指南（ 1985 ） 。
The Talmud is the body of Jewish civil and religious law, including commentaries on the Torah, or Pentateuch.犹太法典，是身体的犹太民间和宗教法，其中包括评论，对律法，或pentateuch 。 The Talmud consists of a codification of laws, called the Mishnah, and a commentary on the Mishnah, called the Gemara.犹太法典组成编纂的法律，被称为mishnah ，和一篇评论对mishnah ，被称为gemara 。 The material in the Talmud that concerns decisions by scholars on disputed legal questions is known as the Halakah; the legends, anecdotes, and sayings in the Talmud that are used to illustrate the traditional law are known as Haggada.该材料在犹太法典表示关注，决定由学者，对有争议的法律问题是众所周知的，因为halakah ;传说，掌故，并熟语在犹太法典是用来说明传统法律被称为haggada 。
Two compilations of the Talmud exist: the Palestinian Talmud, sometimes called the Jerusalem Talmud, and the Babylonian Talmud.两个汇编的犹太法典存在：巴勒斯坦犹太法典，有时被称为耶路撒冷犹太法典，巴比伦塔木德经。 Both compilations contain the same Mishnah, but each has its own Gemara.双方汇编含有相同mishnah ，但每个都有自己的gemara 。 The contents of the Palestinian Talmud were written by Palestinian scholars between the 3rd century AD and the beginning of the 5th century; those of the Babylonian Talmud, by scholars who wrote between the 3rd century and the beginning of the 6th century.内容巴勒斯坦犹太法典写的，由巴勒斯坦学者之间的3世纪广告，并开始5世纪;人士的巴比伦犹太法典中，学者们写之间第三届世纪交替之际， 6世纪。 The Babylonian Talmud became authoritative because the rabbinic academies of Babylonia survived those in Palestine by many centuries.巴比伦塔木德经成为权威的，因为rabbinic院校的巴比伦王国生还者在巴勒斯坦的许多世纪。
The Talmud itself, the works of talmudic scholarship, and the commentaries concerning it constitute the greatest contributions to rabbinical literature in the history of Judaism.犹太法典本身，工程talmudic奖学金，并评论它构成了伟大的贡献犹太教文学史上的犹太教。 One of the most important of the works of scholarship is the Mishneh Torah (Repetition of the Torah, c. 1180) by the Spanish rabbi, philosopher, and physician Maimonides; it is an abstract of all the rabbinical legal literature in existence at his time.其中一个最重要的作品，奖学金是事审判律法（重复的律法，长1180名） ，是由西班牙的拉比，哲学家和医师迈蒙尼德，它是一个抽象的所有犹太教法律文献存在于他的时候。 The most widely known commentaries are those on the Babylonian Talmud by the French rabbi Rashi and by certain scholars known as tosaphists, who lived in France and Germany between the 12th and 14th centuries and included some of Rashi's grandsons.最广为人知的评论，是那些对巴比伦犹太法典由法国拉比rashi和某些学者称为tosaphists ，住在法国和德国之间的第12次和14世纪，并包括一些rashi的孙儿。
The Babylonian Talmud and the Palestinian Talmud were first printed in 1520-22 and in 1523 in Venice by the printer Daniel Bomberg.巴比伦塔木德经和巴勒斯坦犹太法典第一次印刷在1520年至1522年，并于1523年在威尼斯通过打印机丹尼尔邦贝里。 The entire Babylonian Talmud is available in an English translation (1935-52) edited by the British rabbi and scholar Isidore Epstein.整个巴比伦犹太法典，是在现有的英文译本（ 1935年至1952年）的主编是由英国拉比及学者伊西多尔爱泼斯坦。 Most of the Palestinian Talmud is available in a 19th-century French translation, but the rendering is defective and inaccurate.大部分巴勒斯坦犹太法典，是在一个19世纪的法语翻译，但渲染是有缺陷的和不准确的。 Twenty tractates of the Palestinian Talmud are found in a Latin translation, in the Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrarum (1744-69) of Blasio Ugolino, an 18th-century Italian historian and antiquarian.第二十五tractates的巴勒斯坦犹太法典是指一个拉丁语翻译，在词库antiquitatum sacrarum （ 1744至1769年）的blasio ugolino ，一个18世纪的意大利历史学家和博学。
Saul Lieberman娑罗双树利伯曼
The Name.真实姓名。
"Talmud" is an old scholastic term of the Tannaim, and is a noun formed from the verb "limmed" = "to teach." "塔木德经"是一个古老的学术任期的tannaim ，是一个名词，形成从动词" limmed " = "教导" 。 It therefore means primarily "teaching," although it denotes also "learning"; it is employed in this latter sense with special reference to the Torah, the terms "talmud" and "Torah" being usually combined to indicate the study of the Law both in its wider and in its more restricted sense, as in Pe'ah i.因此，它的手段主要是"教学" ，虽然78也"学习" ，它是受雇于这后一种意义上，并特别提及律法中， "塔木德经" ， "律法" ，通常被合并，以显示规律的研究都在更广泛的，并在其较受限制的意义上说，作为在pe'ah一。 1, where the term "talmud Torah" is applied to study as a religious duty. 1 ，凡任期内的"塔木德经律法" ，是适用于学习作为一项宗教责任。 On the other hand, the learning acquired by study is also called "talmud," so that Akiba's pupil Judah ben Ilai could say: "He from whom one derives the greater part of his knowledge ["talmudo"] must be regarded as the teacher" (Tosef., BM ii., end; Yer. BM 8d; BM 33a has "ḥokmah" instead of "talmud").另一方面，关于学习所获得的研究也被称为"犹太法典" ，让秋叶的瞳孔犹大贲ilai可以说： "他从其中产生更大的一部分，据他所知[ " talmudo " ]必须被视为老师" （ tosef. ，骨髓二，完;也门里亚尔。骨髓为8 D ;骨髓33A条" ḥokmah " ，而不是"犹太法典" ） 。 To designate the study of religion, the word "talmud" is used in contrast with "ma'aseh," which connotes the practise of religion.指定研究宗教中， "塔木德经"是用对比的" ma'aseh " ，其中蕴含了行医的宗教。 Akiba's view that on this account the "talmud" ranked above the "ma'aseh" was adopted as a resolution by a famous conference at Lydda during the Hadrianic persecution (see Sifre, Deut. 41; Ḳid. 40b; Yer. Pes. 30b; Cant. R. ii. 14).秋叶的看法，即对本帐"犹太法典"的排名高于" ma'aseh "获得通过，成为一项决议，由一位著名的招待会上lydda在hadrianic迫害（见sifre ， deut 。 41 ; ḳid 。 40B的;也门里亚尔。狗。第三十B ;斜面。传译二14 ） 。 The two terms are contrasted differently, however, in the tannaitic saying (BB 130b), "The Halakah [the principles guiding decisions in religious law] may not be drawn from a teaching of the master ["talmud"] nor be based upon an act of his ["ma'aseh"], unless the master expressly declare that the teaching or act under consideration is the one which is applicable to the practise."这两个名词是对比不同的，但是，在tannaitic说（ BB心跳130b ） ， " halakah [指导原则，决定在宗教法]可能不是来自教学的主人[ "塔木德经" ，也不是基于一种法令他的[ " ma'aseh " ] ，除非主人明确宣布这一项教学或法正在审议的是一个适用于实践" 。
In the second place, the word "talmud"-generally in the phrase "talmud lomar"-is frequently used in tannaitic terminology in order to denote instruction by means of the text of the Bible and of the exegetic deductions therefrom.在第二位，加上"犹太法典" -笼统地说，在"塔木德经l omar" ，是常用的t annaitic术语，以外延的教学手段文圣经的e xegetic克扣了。 In the third place, the noun "talmud" has the meaning which alone can be genetically connected with the name "Talmud"; in tannaitic phraseology the verb "limmed" denotes the exegetic deduction of a halakic principle from the Biblical text (for examples see RH ii. 9; Sifre, Num. 118); and in harmony with this meaning of the word "talmud" denotes that exposition of a halakic saying which receives an exegetic confirmation from the Biblical text.在第三位的名词"犹太法典"的含义，其中单是可以遗传与取名"犹太法典" ; tannaitic用语，动词" limmed " ，是指exegetic扣一个halakic原则，从圣经的文字（例如见铑二，九; sifre ，序号118 ） ，而且在和谐这个词的含义： "塔木德经"是指说，博览会一halakic俗语都会收到一份exegetic确认从圣经文本。 Of the terms, therefore, denoting the three branches into which the study of the traditional exegesis of the Bible was from earliest times divided by the Tannaim (see Jew. Encyc. iii. 163, sv Bible Exegesis), "midrash" was the one identical in content with "talmud" in its original sense, except that the Midrash, which includes any kind of Biblical hermeneutics, but more especially the halakic, deals with the Bible text itself, while the Talmud is based on the Halakah.该条款，因此，代表3家分行，成为其中的研究传统训诂学的圣经是从最早的时候，除以该tannaim （见犹太人。 encyc三163 ， sv圣经注释） ， " midrash " ，是一内容一致，与"犹太法典" ，在其原来的意义上说，除这midrash ，其中包括任何种类的圣经诠释学，而更特别是halakic ，涉及圣经文本本身，而犹太法典的基础上， halakah 。 The Midrash is devoted to Biblical exposition, the result being the Halakah (comp. the phrase "mi-kan ameru" [= "beginning here the sages have said"], which occurs frequently in the tannaitic Midrash and which serves to introduce halakic deductions from the exegesis).该midrash致力于圣经中的论述，其结果作为halakah （ comp.短语"智多根阿姆鲁" = "开始在这里先哲说过： " ] ，其中经常出现在tannaitic midrash和服务引入halakic扣除额从训诂学） 。 In the Talmud, on the other hand, the halakic passage is the subject of an exegesis based on the Biblical text.在犹太法典，但另一方面， halakic通道，是受到一个训诂学的基础上，圣经的文字。
Relation to Midrash.有关midrash 。
In consequence of the original identity of "Talmud" and "Midrash," noted above, the former term is sometimes used instead of the latter in tannaitic sentences which enumerate the three branches of traditional science, Midrash, Halakah, and Haggadah (see Ber. 22a [comp. M. Ḳ. 15a and Yer. Ber. 6c, 39]; Ḳid. 30a; Suk. 28a; BB 134a; Ab. RN xiv. [comp. Masseket Soferim, xvi. 8]; Yer. B. Ḳ. 4b, 31 [comp. Sifre, Deut. 33]; Tosef., Soṭah, vii. 20 [comp. Yer. Soṭah 44a]), while sometimes both "Talmud" and "Midrash" are used (M. Ḳ. 21a; Ta'an. 30a); it must be noted, however, that in the editions of the Babli, "Gemara" is usually substituted for "Talmud," even in the passages here cited.在后果原来的身份， "塔木德经"与" midrash ， "如上所述，前者来说是有时被用来代替后者在tannaitic判刑，其中列举了3家分行的传统科学， midrash ， halakah ， haggadah （见误码率。 22A条[可比。米ḳ 。 15A条和也门里亚尔。误码率。 6 C条， 39 〕 ; ḳid 。 30A条;淑。 28a中; BB心跳134a的;抗体。氡十四[可比。 masseket soferim ，十六8 ] ;也门里亚尔。乙ḳ 。 4B条， 31 [可比。 sifre ， deut 33 〕 ; tosef ， soṭah ，第七章20条[可比。也门里亚尔。 soṭah 44 ] ） ，而有时这两个"塔木德经"与" midrash "是用来（米ḳ 。 21 ; ta'an 。 30A条） ，但必须注意，不过，在版本的babli ， " gemara "通常是取代"犹太法典" ，即使是在通道这里引用。 The word "Talmud" in all these places did not denote the study subsequently pursued by the Amoraim, but was used instead of the word "Midrash," although this did not preclude the later introduction of the term "Talmud" into tannaitic sayings, where it either entirely displaced "Midrash" or was used side by side with it.加上"犹太法典"在所有这些地方，并没有指明这项研究后来所亚摩兰，但没有使用的字" midrash ， "虽然这并不排除在稍后推出的"塔木德经"纳入tannaitic熟语，如它要么完全撤换" midrash "或用并肩合作。
After the term "Talmud" had come to denote the exegetic confirmation of the Halakah, it was applied also to the explanation and exposition of halakic passages in general.任期届满后的"塔木德经"来指exegetic确认各项halakah ，它也适用于解释和阐发的halakic通道，在一般。 As early as the end of the tannaitic period, when the halakot were finally redactedby the patriarch Judah I. and were designated as "Mishnah," a term originally applied to the entire system of traditional learning, the Talmud was developed as a new division of this same science; and it was destined to absorb all others.早在去年底该tannaitic期间，当halakot终于redactedby牧犹大一，被指定为" mishnah ， "一任原本适用于整个系统的传统学习，犹太法典，是发展成为一个新的分工这同科学，它是注定要吸收一切别人。 In a baraita dating, according to the amora Johanan, from the days of Judah I. (BM 33a; comp. Yer. Shab. 15c, 22 et seq.), the Mishnah and the Talmud are defined as subjects of study side by side with the "Miḳra" (Bible), the study of the Talmud being mentioned first.在baraita约会，据该amora约哈难，从天的犹大一（骨髓33A条;可比。也门里亚尔。沙巴。 15 C ， 22页起） ， mishnah和犹太法典，是指研究课题，并排与" miḳra " （圣经） ，学习犹太法典被提到第一。 To this baraita there is an addition, however, to the effect that more attention should be given to the Mishnah than to the Talmud.这baraita是有然而，除此之外，其大意是，应更多地注意考虑到mishnah比对犹太法典。 Johanan explains this passage by the fact that the members of Judah's academy, in their eagerness to investigate the Talmud, neglected the Mishnah; hence the patriarch laid stress upon the duty of studying the Mishnah primarily.约哈难解释了这一点，通过事实，那就是大家的犹大的学院，在他们的渴望，调查犹太法典，而忽略mishnah ，因此，牧，着重强调了后，当值的学习mishnah为主。 In these passages the word "Talmud" is used not in its more restricted sense of the establishment of halakot by Biblical exegesis, but in its wider signification, in which it designates study for the purpose of elucidating the Mishnah in general, as pursued after Judah's death in the academies of Palestine and Babylon.在这些通道改为"犹太法典" ，是不是用在较受限制的意识，建立halakot由圣经注释，但在其更广泛的意义，在它指定的研究为目的，以澄清mishnah一般而言，由于追求后，犹大的而死在院校的巴勒斯坦和巴比伦。 This baraita is, furthermore, an authentic document on the origin of the Talmud.这baraita是，而且，一个真实的文件，对原产地的犹太法典。
Three classes of members of the academy are mentioned in an anecdote referring to Judah I. (BB 8a): (1) those who devoted themselves chiefly to the Bible ("ba'ale Miḳra"); (2) those whose principal study was the Mishnah ("ba'ale Mishnah"); and (3) those whose main interest lay in the Talmud ("ba'ale Talmud"). 3班的学院成员都提到在一个轶闻指犹大一（ BB心跳8 ） ： （ 1 ）那些投身最主要圣经（下称" ba'ale miḳra " ） ; （ 2 ） ，其主要研究该mishnah （ " ba'ale mishnah " ） ，以及（ 3 ） ，其主要的兴趣在于在犹太法典（ " ba'ale犹太法典" ） 。 This is the original reading of the passage, although the editions mention also the "ba'ale Halakah" and the "ba'ale Haggadah" (see below).这是原来读通过，虽然版本何况，又是" ba'ale halakah "和" ba'ale haggadah " （见下文） 。 These three branches of knowledge are, therefore, the same as those enumerated in BM 33a.这3个党支部的知识，因此，同样的，作为列举的BM 33A条。 Tanḥum b. tanḥum乙 Ḥanilai, a Palestinian amora of the third century, declared, with reference to this threefold investigation ('Ab. Zarah 19b): "Let the time given to study be divided into three parts: one-third for the Bible, one-third for the Mishnah, and one-third for the Talmud." ḥanilai ，一名巴勒斯坦amora的第三个世纪，申报的，参照本三重调查（ '抗体。 zarah 19B条）说： "让时间给研究可分为3个部分：其中三分之一为圣经中，有三分之一为该mishnah ，其中三分之一为犹太法典" 。 In Ḳid.在ḳid 。 33a this saying is quoted in the name of the tanna Joshua b. 33A条这句话是引述姓名的tanna约书亚乙 Hananiah, although this is probably a corruption of the name of Jose b.哈拿尼雅，尽管这可能是腐败的名义圣荷西乙 Ḥanina (amora). ḥanina （ amora ） 。 Yudan, a Palestinian amora of the fourth century, found in Eccl.豫单时，一名巴勒斯坦amora的第四个世纪，发现在eccl 。 xi.十一。 9 an allusion to the pleasure taken in the three branches of study, Miḳra, Mishnah, and Talmud.九，暗指游乐场所采取的三个支部的学习中， miḳra ， mishnah ，和犹太法典。
The Three Subjects of Study.三个研究课题。
The old trichotomy of traditional literature was changed, however, by the acceptance of the Mishnah of Judah I., and by the new study of the Talmud designed to interpret it.老三分法的传统文学被改变，但所接受的mishnah的犹大一，由新的研究犹太法典旨在解释。 The division termed "Halakot" (singular, "Halakah") in the old classification was then called "Mishnah," although in Palestine the Mishnah continued to be designated as "Halakot."该司被称为" halakot " （奇异， " halakah " ） ，在旧的分类，当时所谓的" mishnah ， "虽然在巴勒斯坦mishnah继续被指定为" halakot " 。 The Midrash became a component part of the Talmud; and a considerable portion of the halakic Bible hermeneuties of the Tannaim, which had been preserved in various special works, was incorporated in the Babylonian Talmud.该midrash成为一个组成部分，犹太法典以及相当一部份的halakic圣经hermeneuties的tannaim ，一直保存在各种形式的专项工程，是成立于巴比伦塔木德经。 The Haggadah (plural, "Haggadot") lost its importance as an individual branch of study in the academies, although it naturally continued to be a subject of investigation, and a portion of it also was included in the Talmud.该haggadah （复数， " haggadot " ） ，失去了它的重要性，作为一个单独的分支研究中的院校，虽然它自然继续成为一个调查对象，以及一部分，它也被列在犹太法典。 Occasionally the Haggadah is even designated as a special branch, being added as a fourth division to the three already mentioned.偶尔haggadah更是被指定为特别支部，增加一条，作为第四条记名表决，以3个已经提到。 Ḥanina ben Pappa, an amora of the early part of the fourth century, in characterizing these four branches says: "The countenance should be serious and earnest in teaching the Scriptures, mild and calm for the Mishnah, bright and lively for the Talmud, and merry and smiling for the Haggadah" (Pesiḳ. 110a; Pes. R. 101b; Tan., Yitro, ed. Buber, p. 17; Massek. Soferim, xvi. 2). ḥanina贲pappa ， amora的早期部分的第四个世纪，在描述这四个党支部说： "国家进行，应该严肃认真，在教学中会念经，温和，平静，为mishnah ，明亮，活泼，为犹太法典，并欢乐和微笑，为haggadah " （ pesiḳ. 110a ;聚醚砜。传译101b ;火炭， yitro ，教育署。布伯，第17页;马塞克。 soferim ，十六2 ） 。 As early as the third century Joshua ben Levi interpreted Deut.早在公元三世纪约书亚贲利维解释deut 。 ix.九。 10 to mean that the entire Law, including Miḳra, Mishnah, Talmud, and Haggadah, had been revealed to Moses on Sinai (Yer. Pes. 17a, line 59; Meg. 74d, 25), while in Gen. R. lxvi. 10日至意味着整个法律，包括miḳra ， mishnah ，犹太法典，并haggadah ，已被泄露给摩西对西奈（ yer.狗。 17A条，线路59条;梅格。条文" ， 25 ） ，而在将军传译lxvi 。 3 the blessings invoked in Gen. xxvii. 3祝福援引将军二十七。 28 are explained as "Miḳra, Mishnah, Talmud, and Haggadah."有28人解释为" miḳra ， mishnah ，犹太法典，并haggadah " 。 The Palestinian haggadist Isaac divided these four branches into two groups: (1) the Miḳra and the Haggadah, dealing with subjects of general interest; and (2) the Mishnah and the Talmud, "which can not hold the attention of those who hear them" (Pesiḳ. 101b; see Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." ii. 211).巴勒斯坦haggadist艾萨克划分这四个分支机构分为两组： （ 1 ） miḳra和haggadah ，处理与会者普遍感兴趣的题目;及（ 2 ）条的规定mishnah和犹太法典" ，这是完全站不住脚的注意那些听到他们" （ pesiḳ. 101b ;见bacher ， "银。帕尔。阿穆尔"二211 ） 。
According to a note of Tanḥuma ben Abba (of the latter part of the 4th cent.) on Cant.根据一项注意到tanḥuma贲雅伯金曲（对后者的一部分第四届一分钱）于斜面。 v. 14 (Cant. R. ad loc.), a student must be familiar with all four branches of knowledge, Miḳra, Mishnah, Halakah (the last-named term used here instead of "Tatmud"), and Haggadah; while Samuel b.五， 14 （ cant.传译专案同上） ，学生必须熟悉所有四个分支机构的知识， miḳra ， mishnah ， halakah （上一次命名所用的字眼，而是在这里的" tatmud " ） ，并haggadah而塞缪尔乙 Judah b.犹大乙 Abun, a Palestinian amora of the same century, interpreted Prov. abun ，一名巴勒斯坦amora的同一世纪，诠释省。 xxviii.二十八。 11 as an allusion to the halakist ("man of the Talmud") and to the haggadist ("man of the Haggadah"; Yer. Hor. 48c; see also Pesiḳ. 176a; Lev. R. xxi., Talmud and Haggadah).十一作为一个典故到halakist （ "人的犹太法典" ） ，并且向haggadist （ "人的haggadah " ;也门里亚尔。激素。 48c ;又见pesiḳ 。 176a ;列弗。传译二十一，犹太法典以及haggadah ） 。 Here may be mentioned also the concluding passage of the mishnaic treatise Abot (v., end): "At the age of five to the Bible; at the age of ten to the Mishnah; at the age of fifteen to the Talmud."这里可能也提到结论通过本mishnaic伤寒abot （五，完）说： "在5岁以下，以圣经，在十岁那年到mishnah ;当时年仅十五至塔木德经" 。 This is ascribed by many to the ancient tanna Samuel ha-Ḳaṭon (see Bacher, "Ag. Tan." i. 378), although the sequence of study which it mentions is evidently that which was customary during the amoraic period (comp. also the saying of Abaye in Ket. 50a).这可能归因于许多古代tanna塞缪尔哈ḳaṭon （见bacher ， "银。谭" ，一378 ） ，虽然序列的研究，其中提到，显然是说，这是习惯在amoraic期（ comp.还俗语的abaye在KET的。 50条A ） 。 The following passages from the Babylonian Talmud may likewise serve to illustrate the special usage which finally made the word "Talmud" current as the name of the work.以下段落巴比伦塔木德经同样可能有助于说明特殊用法，终于取得了两个字： "犹太法典" ，目前为作品名称。 Samuel, one of the earliest Babylonian amoraim, interpreted the words of Zech.萨穆埃尔，其中最早的巴比伦亚摩兰，这句话解释的撒加利亚。 viii.八。 10, "neither was there any peace to him that went out or came in," as applying to the restlessness of one who turns from the Talmud and confines himself to the study of the Mishnah (Ḥag. 10a). 10 ， "不存在任何和平向他表示，走出去或来的话， "作为申请到焦躁情绪的人轮流从犹太法典和禁锢自己，以学习贯彻mishnah （ ḥag. 10A ）为。 Johanan, the younger Palestinian contemporary of Samuel, extends the allusion to "him also who turns from one Talmud to study another," referring here to Babli and to Yerushalmi.约哈难，年轻的巴勒斯坦当代的萨穆埃尔，延伸典故，以"他的人也轮流从一个犹太法典研究的另一" ，在这里指的babli并yerushalmi 。 It is very possible that he had noticed that in the case of his numerous Babylonian pupils the transition from the mishnaic exegesis which they had acquired at home to that of the Palestinian schools was not made without disturbing their peace of mind.这是非常可能的，他曾注意到，在案件多次巴比伦学生过渡到mishnaic训诂学，他们获得了在国内可说是巴勒斯坦学校并非没有感到不安，他们内心的平静。 Allusions to the "Talmud of Babylon" by two prominent Babylonians who settled in Palestine (Ze'era and Jeremiah) have likewise been pre-served (BM 85c; Sanh. 24a); and they confirm Johanan's conception of the meaning of the term.典故，以"塔木德经巴比伦" ，由两个突出巴比伦人人定居在巴勒斯坦（ ze'era和耶利米） ，也同样被前送达（骨髓85C号; sanh 。 24A条） ，以及他们证实约哈难的观念一词的含义。
The Gemara.该gemara 。
In Babylonia the Aramaic noun "gemar" (emphatic state, "gemara") was formed from the verb (which does not occur in Palestinian texts), having the meaning of "learn."在巴比伦王国的阿拉姆语名词" gemar " （强调状态， " gemara " ）成立，由动词（这并不发生在巴勒斯坦文本） ，具有意义的"学习" 。 This substantive accordingly designates that which has been learned, and the learning transmitted to scholars by tradition, although it is used also in a more restricted sense to connote the traditional exposition of the Mishnah; and it therefore gained currency as a designation of the Talmud.本次实质性据此将指定其中，据了解，并学习传送到学者，由传统，尽管它的使用也处于较受限制的意义上，以内涵传统博览会的mishnah ;因此，它获得了货币作为指定犹太法典。 In the modern editions of the Babylonian Talmud the term "Gemara" occurs very frequently in this sense; but in nearly every case it was substituted at a later time for the objectionable word "Talmud," which was interdicted by the censor.在现代版本的巴比伦塔木德经"一词gemara "现象已非常频密，在这个意义上，但几乎每一个案例，它取代了，在稍后时间，让不良"犹太法典" ，这是停职受审查。 The only passage in which "Gemara" occurs with the meaning of "Talmud" in the strict sense of that term and from which it was not removed by the censor is 'Er.唯一的通道中， " gemara "现象与所指的"犹太法典" ，在严格意义上说，任期从它不能完全取消，由检查员是'呃。 32b, where it is used by Naḥman bar Jacob, a Babylonian amora of the second half of the third century. 32 B条，因为它正在使用的naḥman酒吧雅各布，巴比伦amora的下半年，三世纪。 For further details see Bacher, "Gemara," in "Hebrew Union College Annual," pp.进一步的细节见bacher ， " gemara " ，在"希伯莱联合学院每年， "页。 26-36, Cincinnati, 1904, where the word is shown to have been used for "Talmud" from the geonic period (see also idem, "Die Terminologie der Amoräer," pp. 31 et seq., Leipsic, 1905). 26-36 ，辛辛那提， 1904年，而这个词是显示已被用作"犹太法典" ，从若尼克期（亦见同上，在"死术语明镜amoräer "页31页起， leipsic ， 1905 ） 。 The later editions of the Talmud frequently substitute for the word "Gemara" the abbreviation (Aramaic, = "the six orders of the Mishnah"), which has come to be, with the pronunciation "Shas," a popular designation for the Babylonian Talmud.后来版本的犹太法典经常替代字" gemara "的缩写（阿拉姆语， = "六个订单的mishnah " ） ，这已到了，与发音的"沙斯"流行指定为巴比伦塔木德经。
Here may be mentioned the term "Shem'ata" (), which was used in Babylonia to designate the halakic portion of the Talmud, and which was thus contrasted with "Haggadah" (see Ḥag. 26a; Soṭah 20a; Sanh. 38b; comp. also M. Ḳ. 23a, where "Shemu'ah," the Hebrew form, occurs in a baraita).这里不妨提到而言， " shem'ata " （ ） ，它是用来在巴比伦王国到指定halakic部分犹太法典，并因此形成对照的" haggadah " （见ḥag 。 26A条; soṭah 20A条; sanh 。第38B ;可比，而且米ḳ 。 23A条的规定下， " shemu'ah " ，希伯来文的形式，出现在baraita ） 。 In the tenth century this word was used in Mohammedan circles to designate Jewish tradition as well as its chief source, the Talmud; so that Mas'udi refers to Saadia Gaon as an "ashma'ti" (ie, a believer in the tradition), using this term in contrast to "Karaite" (see Pinsker, "Liḳḳuṭe Ḳadmoniyyot," i. 5).在10世纪这个词用在穆罕默德界划定犹太人的传统，以及其首席消息人士说，犹太法典;使mas'udi指saadia gaon作为" ashma'ti " （即信奉传统）使用这个名词对照的" karaite " （见pinsker ， " liḳḳuṭe ḳadmoniyyot ， "一5 ） 。 A "Kitab al-Ashma'ah" (ie, "Talmud") is also mentioned ("ZDMG" lviii. 659). "文化发展基地ashma'ah " （即"塔木德经" ）是也提到（ " zdmg " lviii 。 659 ） 。
The theorem that the Talmud was the latest development of traditional science has been demonstrated by this discussion of the meaning and the use of the word itself.该定理认为，犹太法典是最新的发展，传统科学已经证明了这一讨论的意义和使用这个词本身。 The Talmud accordingly dates from the time following the final redaction of the Mishnah; and it was taught in the academy of Judah I. as the commentary on the tannaitic Halakah.犹太法典相应的日期从时间后，最后编撰学的mishnah ;这是教学院的犹大一，作为评论tannaitic halakah 。 The editorial activity which, from the mass of halakic material that had accumulated since Akiba's Mishnah, crystallized the Talmud in accordance with the systematic order introduced by that teacher, implied the interpretation and critical examination of the Halakah, and was, therefore, analogous to Talmudic methodology.社论活动，从群众的halakic材料已累积自秋叶的mishnah ，凝结着犹太法典按照系统命令介绍说，老师，隐含的解释和严格审核的halakah ，并，因此，类似于talmudic方法论。
There were, likewise, many elements of tannaitic tradition, especially the midrashic exegesis of the Bible, as well as numerous halakic interpretations, lexicographical and material, which were ready for incorporation into the Talmud in its more restricted meaning of the interpretation of the Mishnah of Judah I. When this Mishnah became the standard halakic work, both as a source for decisions of questions of religious law, and, even more especially, as a subject of study in the academies, the Talmud interpretation of the mishnaic text, both in theory and in practise, naturally became the most important branch of study, and included the other branches of traditional science, being derived from the Halakah and the Midrash (halakic exegesis), and also including haggadic material, though to a minor degree.还有，同样的，许多内容的tannaitic传统，尤其是米大示解经注释的圣经，以及众多halakic表述，辞书和物质，其中准备，以便将其纳入犹太法典在较受限制的含义的解释，该mishnah的犹大的时候，一本mishnah成为标准halakic工作中，既作为源决定的问题，宗教法，而且，更特别是，作为一门学科的研究中的院校，犹太法典解释该mishnaic文本中，无论是在理论并在练习，自然成了最重要的分支研究，并列入了其他学科的传统科学，被来自halakah和midrash （ halakic训诂学） ，而且还包括与haggadic素材，但一个小的程度。 The Talmud, however, was not an independent work; and it was this characteristic which constituted the chief difference between it and the earlier subjects of study of the tannaitic period.犹太法典，不过，这也不是一个独立的工作，这是这一特点构成行政区别，它和早先研究课题的tannaitic时期。 It had no form of its own, since it served as a running commentary on the mishnaic text; and this fact determined the character which the work ultimately assumed.它已没有任何形式的本身，因为它提供了运行评论mishnaic文本;这个事实，决定了字的工作，最终假设。
Relation to Mishnah.有关mishnah 。
The Talmud is practically a mere amplification of the Mishnah by manifold comments and additions; so that even those portions of the Mishnah which have no Talmud are regarded as component parts of it and are accordingly included in the editions of Babli.犹太法典实际上只是功放的mishnah由多方面的意见和补充，因此，即使这些部分的mishnah有没有犹太法典，被视为组成部分，这一点，并据此纳入版本babli 。 The history of the origin of the Talmud is the same as that of the Mishnah-a tradition, transmitted orally for centuries, was finally cast into definite literary form, although from the moment in which the Talmud became the chief subject of study in the academies it had a double existence, and was accordingly, in its final stage, redacted in two different forms.历史起源的犹太法典是一样的mishnah -一个传统，传播口头几百年，终于铸就了一定的文学形式，虽然从受孕起，其中犹太法典成为行政的课题研究中的院校它有一个双重的存在，并据此在其最后阶段，在经过编辑的两种不同形式。 The Mishnah of Judah I. was adopted simultaneously in Babylon and Palestine as the halakic collection par excellence; and at the same time the development of the Talmud was begun both at Sepphoris, where the Mishnah was redacted, and at Nehardea and Sura, where Judah's pupils Samuel and Rab engaged in their epoch-making work.该mishnah的犹大一获得通过，同时在巴比伦和巴勒斯坦作为halakic收集出色;或在同一时间的发展，犹太法典开始在sepphoris ，那里mishnah是编辑，并在nehardea和苏拉，而犹大的学生和萨穆埃尔Rab的从事自己的，具有划时代的工作。 The academies of Babylon and of Palestine alike regarded the study of the Mishnah and its interpretation as their chief task.该院校的巴比伦和巴勒斯坦一样把学习的mishnah及其解释作为其首要任务。 The Amoraim, as the directors and members of these academies were called ( see Amora), became the originators of the Talmud; and its final redaction marked the end of the amoraic times in the same way that the period of the Tannaim was concluded by the compilation of the Mishnah of Judah I. Like the Mishnah, the Talmud was not the work of one author or of several authors, but was the result of the collective labors of many successive generations, whose toil finally resulted in a book unique in its mode of development.该亚摩兰，由于董事局的成员，这些院校的，被称为（见amora ） ，成为原创者的犹太法典，而且它的最后编撰学标志着结束了amoraic倍，在以同样的方式将这段期间的tannaim得出的结论是，由汇编了mishnah的犹大一像mishnah ，犹太法典，是不是工作的一个作家或几个作家，但是由于集体劳动的许多世代，其辛劳，终于导致了一本书，有其独特的模式的发展。
The Palestinian Talmud.巴勒斯坦犹太法典。
Before entering into any discussion of the origin and peculiar form of the Talmud, the two recensions of the work itself may be briefly described.然后进入任何讨论的起源和形成特有的犹太法典，两recensions的工作本身，可简要描述。 The general designation of the Palestinian Talmud as "Talmud Yerushalmi," or simply as "Yerushalmi," is precisely analogous to that of the Palestinian Targum.一般指定巴勒斯坦犹太法典"塔木德经yerushalmi " ，或干脆为" yerushalmi " ，正是类似当年的巴勒斯坦targum 。 The term originated in the geonic period, when, however, the work received also the more precise designations of "Talmud of Palestine," "Talmud of the Land of Israel," "Talmud of the West," and "Talmud of the Western Lands."一词起源于若尼克时期，但是，当工作，也收到了较准确的番号的"犹太法典的巴勒斯坦" ， "犹太法典的以色列土地" ， "犹太法典的西方" ， "犹太法典的西部地" Yerushalmi has not been preserved in its entirety; large portions of it were entirely lost at an early date,while other parts exist only in fragments. yerushalmi没有被保存在整;很大一部分，它完全失去了早日在一个，而其他部分，只存在于片段。 The editio princeps (ed. Bomberg, Venice, 1523 et seq.), on which all later editions are based, terminates with the following remark: "Thus far we have found what is contained in this Talmud; and we have endeavored in vain to obtain the missing portions."该editio princeps （编辑邦贝里，威尼斯，第1523页起） ，对所有后来的版本是根据，即终止与以下这句话： "到目前为止，我们已经找到什么是包含在这个犹太法典;我们已经发放完毕，妄图获得失踪的部分" 。 Of the four manuscripts used for this first edition (comp. the note at the conclusion of Shab. xx. 17d and the passage just cited), only one is now in existence; it is preserved in the library of the University of Leyden (see below).上述四个手稿用于这一首版（ comp.说明，在总结沙巴的XX 。 17d ，并通过刚刚提到） ，只有一个是现在存在的，它是保存在图书馆的大学莱登（见下文） 。 Of the six orders of the Mishnah, the fifth, Ḳodashim, is missing entirely from the Palestinian Talmud, while of the sixth, Ṭohorot, it contains only the first three chapters of the treatise Niddah (iv. 48d-51b).该6项命令的mishnah ，第五， ḳodashim ，失踪完全从巴勒斯坦犹太法典，而中六， ṭohorot ，它只包含前三个章节的论文niddah （ iv. 48d - 51B条） 。 The treatises of the orders of the Mishnah are arranged in the following sequence in this Talmud; the pagination also is given here, in parentheses, to indicate the length of the several treatises:该论文的命令的mishnah排列顺序如下，在这个犹太法典;分页，也就是由于此，在括号中，以显示长度的几个论文：
I. Zera'im:一zera '即时通讯：
Berakot (2a-14d); Pe'ah (15a-21b); Demai (21c-26c); Ki'layim (26d-32d); Shebi'it (33a-39d); Terumot (40a-48b); Ma'aserot (48c-52a); Ma'aser Sheni (52b-58d); Ḥallah (57a-60b); 'Orlah (60c-63b); Bikkurim (63c-65d). berakot （甲- 14d ） ; pe'ah （ 15A条- 21 ） ; demai （ 21世纪- 26 C ） ; ki'layim （ 26d - 32 D条） ; shebi'it （ 33A条- 39d ） ; terumot （ 40A条- 48b ） ;马' aserot （ 48c - 52 ） ; ma'aser sheni （ 52 b型- 58D " ） ; ḥallah （ 57A条- 60b ） ; ' orlah （ 60c - 63 B ） ; bikkurim （ 63c - 65d ） 。
II.二。 Mo'ed: mo'ed ：
Shabbat (2a-18a); 'Erubin (18a-26d); Pesaḥim (27a-37d); Yoma (38a-45c); Sheḳalim (45c-51b); Sukkah (51c-55d); Rosh ha-Shanah (56a-59d); Beẓah (59d-63b), Ta'anit (63c-69c); Megillah (69d-75d); Ḥagigah (75d-79d); Mo'ed Ḳaṭan (80a-83d). shabbat （甲- 18 ） ; ' erubin （ 18 - 26d ） ; pesaḥim （ 27A条- 37 D ） ; yoma （ 38A条- 45c ） ; sheḳalim （ 45c - 51B条） ; sukkah （ 51c - 55d ） ;羁绊夏shanah （第56A号- 59 D条） ; beẓah （ 59 D条- 63 B ） ， ta'anit （ 63c - 69c ） ; megillah （ 69d - 75d ） ; ḥagigah （ 75d - 79d ） ; mo'ed ḳaṭan （ 80 A条- 83d ） 。
III.三。 Nashim:女之部：
Yebamot (2a-15a); Soṭah (15a-24c); Ketubot (24c-36b); Nedarim (36c-42d); Giṭṭin (43a-50d); Nazir (51a-58a); Ḳiddushin (58a-66d). yebamot （甲-15甲） ; soṭah （ 15A条- 24摄氏度） ; ketubot （ 24摄氏度- 36B条） ; nedarim （ 36C条- 42d ） ; giṭṭin （ 43 A条- 50 D ） ;纳齐尔（ 51 - 10 ） ; ḳiddushin （ 58A条- 66d ） 。
IV.四。 Neziḳin: neziḳin ：
Baba Ḳamma (2a-7c); Baba Meẓi'a (7c-12c); Baba Batra (12d-17d); Sanhedrin (17d-30c); Makkot (30d-32b); Shebu'ot (32c-38d); 'Abodah Zarah (39a-45b); Horayot (45c-48c).巴巴ḳamma （甲- 7C条） ;巴巴meẓi'a （ 7C条-碳-12 ） ;巴巴巴特拉（ 12 D - 17d ） ;公会（ 17d - 30摄氏度） ; makkot （三楼三十D号- 32 B条） ; shebu'ot （ 32 - 38 D条） ; '阿布达zarah （ 39A条- 45 B ） ; horayot （ 45c - 48c ） 。
VI.六。 Ṭohorot: ṭohorot ：
Niddah (48d-51b). niddah （ 48d - 51B条） 。
In order ii.为了二。 the last four chapters of Shabbat are missing from the Palestinian Talmud, while the treatise Sheḳalim has been incorporated into the editions of the Babylonian Talmud from Yerushalmi, and is found also in a Munich manuscript of Babli.最后四章shabbat下落不明，从巴勒斯坦的犹太法典，而伤寒sheḳalim已纳入版本的巴比伦塔木德经从yerushalmi ，并还发现，在慕尼黑手稿babli 。 In order iv.为了四。 the treatises Abot and 'Eduyot are missing in both Talmudim, and the concluding chapter of Makkot is wanting in Yerushalmi.该论文abot和' eduyot失踪，在这两个talmudim ，最后一章的makkot是要在yerushalmi 。 In order vi.为了六。 the treatise Niddah ends abruptly after the first lines of ch.该论文niddah突然结束后，第一线的甲烷。 iv.四。
Maimonides expressly states in the introduction to his commentary on the Mishnah that in his time Yerushalmi was extant for the entire first five orders (comp. Abraham ibn Daud, ed. Neubauer, "MJC" i. 57); therefore he must have seen the Yerushalmi of the order Ḳodashim, although he himself does not quote it in his commentary on this order (see Frankel, "Mebo," p. 45b).迈蒙尼德明确规定，在介绍他的评论就mishnah ，在他的时候yerushalmi是现存为整个第5项命令（ comp.亚伯拉罕的Ibn daud ，教育署。 neubauer ， " mjc "一57 ） ，因此，他必须看到yerushalmi该命令ḳodashim ，虽然他本人并不引用它在他的评论对这项命令（见弗兰克尔， "湿润烧伤膏" ，第45 B ） 。 Except for the treatise Niddah, on the other hand, there was, according to Maimonides (lc), no Yerushalmi for the sixth order.除为伤寒niddah ，另一方面，有根据迈蒙尼德（立法会） ，没有yerushalmi为第六届秩序。 A South-Arabian work of the fifteenth century, however, quotes the Gemara "on 'Uḳẓin in the Gemara of the people of Jerusalem," which is said to contain a passage on the zodiac (see Steinschneider, "Catalog der Hebräischen Handschriften der Königlichen Bibliothek zu Berlin," p. 65, Berlin, 1878).南方阿拉伯工作， 15世纪，然而，行情的gemara "关于' uḳẓin在gemara的人的耶路撒冷" ，据说这是含有一个通道就十二生肖（见steinschneider ， "目录明镜hebräischen handschriften明镜königlichen图书馆祖柏林， "第65页，柏林， 1878年） 。 The author of this quotation, therefore, knew Yerushalmi for the last treatise of the sixth order, although it is possible that the passage quoted may have been in the lost portion of the treatise Niddah, and that the name "'Uḳẓin" may have been used instead of "Ṭohorot."作者的这一报价，因此，应该知道自己yerushalmi为去年伤寒的第六秩序，它虽然是有可能通过援引可能已经在失去了部分的论文niddah ，并命名为" ' uḳẓin "可能已被不是" ṭohorot " 。 For further details on the missing sections of Yerushalmi see Frankel, lc pp.进一步的细节就失踪路段yerushalmi见弗兰克尔，信用证页。 45a et seq.; Weiss, "Dor," iii. 45 A条等条;魏斯， " dor ， "三。 232; Buber, in Berliner's "Magazin," v. 100-105; and Strack, "Einleitung in den Talmud," pp. 232 ;布伯，在柏林的"杂志， "五100-105 ; strack ， " einleitung在书斋犹太法典" ，页。 63-65. 63-65 。 The mishnaic text on which the Palestinian Talmud is based has been preserved in its entirety in a manuscript belonging to the library of the University of Cambridge, and has been edited by WH Lowe ("The Mishnah on Which the Palestinian Talmud Rests," Cambridge, 1883).该mishnaic文本上的巴勒斯坦犹太法典，是基于一直保存在一个整体在手稿属于图书馆的大学，剑桥大学，并已主编低于起（下称" mishnah就巴勒斯坦犹太法典在于， "剑桥1883年） 。
The Palestinian Talmud is so arranged in the editions that each chapter is preceded by its entire mishnaic text with the paragraphs numbered, this being followed by the Talmud on the several paragraphs.巴勒斯坦犹太法典是这样安排在版本，每章之前，其整个mishnaic文字与段落的编号，这是其次是犹太法典上的几个段落。 In the first seven chapters of Berakot the paragraphs are designated as "First Mishnah" (), "Second Mishnah," etc.; while in the remainingchapters and all the other treatises the paragraphs are termed "halakot" ().在今年首七个月的章节berakot段被命名为"第一届mishnah " （ ） ， "第二mishnah "等，而在remainingchapters和所有其他论文段落被称为" halakot " （ ） 。 In the early chapters the mishnaic text of each paragraph is repeated entire in the Talmud at the beginning of the paragraph; but later only the first words are prefaced to the Talmudic text.在早期的章节了mishnaic文本每个段落重复，在整个犹太法典在该段开头，但后来只有第一个字序向talmudic文本。 Even in cases where there is no Talmud the designation of the paragraph and the beginning of the mishnaic text are given.即使在的情况下，是没有塔木德经指定该段，并开始了mishnaic文本作出适当的解释。 The editio princeps seems to have borrowed this arrangement from the manuscripts, although the system is much more simple in the fragment of Yerushalmi edited by Paul von Kokowzoff in the "Mémoires de la Société Archéologique de St. Petersbourg" (xi. 195-205), which contains some paragraphs of the sixth and eighth chapters of Baba Ḳamma.该editio princeps似乎都借用这种安排从手稿，尽管该系统是更简单的，在片段yerushalmi主编保罗冯kokowzoff在"德，为本香格里拉协会archéologique德圣petersbourg " （ xi. 195-205 ） ，其中载有某些段落的第六和第八章的巴巴ḳamma 。 This fragment begins with the concluding lines of the Talmudic text of ch.这个片段开始与结束线的talmudic文本的CH 。 v.; but between them and the beginning of ch.五，但他们之间并开始了CH 。 vi.六。 the Mishnah is lacking, so that the superscription, "Chapter vi.," is followed immediately by the Talmudic text.该mishnah欠缺，因此，只要superscription " ，第六章" ，紧接着，由talmudic文本。 There is no reference to the beginning of the paragraph, either in the first or in the succeeding paragraphs; nor is there any explanation of the fact that paragraphs 4 and 7 of ch.然而，却没有提及该段开头，不论是在第一或在接替段，也就是有任何解释的事实，即第4和第7的CH 。 viii.八。 have no Talmud.没有犹太法典。 It is clear, therefore, that the manuscript to which this fragment belonged contained only the Talmudic text, thus presupposing the use of a special copy of the Mishnah.很明显，因此，手稿，即在本片段属于只载talmudic文本，因此，假设使用一种特殊的副本提交mishnah 。 It is likewise noteworthy that in the first two chapters of Berakot the sections of the Talmudic text on some of the paragraphs are designated in the editions by the word "pisḳa" (section), a term found occasionally also in other portions of the text of Yerushalmi.这是同样值得注意的是，前两章的berakot路段的talmudic文本上的某些段落是在指定版本一词由" pisḳa " （段） ，任期发现，偶尔也有其他部分的案文yerushalmi 。
The Style of the Yerushalmi.风格的yerushalmi 。
The style of Yerushalmi may be indicated by a brief analysis of a few sections, such as Ber.作风yerushalmi可能显示简要分析了几个章节，如误码率。 i.一。 1; RH i. 1 ;铑一。 1, 2; Giṭ.一日，二日; giṭ 。 ii.二。 1; and BB i. 1 ，和BB一。 6. 6 。 Ber.误码率。 i.一。 1: The text of this paragraph, which begins the Mishnah, is as follows: "During what time in the evening is the reading of the 'Shema'' begun? From the time when the priests go in to eat their leaven [see Lev. xxii. 7] until the end of the first watch of the night, such being the words of R. Eliezer. The sages, however, say until midnight, though R. Gamaliel says until the coming of the dawn." 1 ：文这一段，即开始mishnah ，具体内容如下： "在什么时间，在傍晚是读'射麻''开始？从的时候，牧师去吃饭，他们尚基[见列弗。 22 。 7 ] ，直到去年底第一次观赏的夜晚，这样的话传译埃利泽。先哲，不过，说，直到午夜十二时，虽然传译加马说，直到未来的曙光" 。
Examples.例子。
The Talmud on this paragraph (2a, line 34-3a, line 3) contains three sections, which correspond to the three opinions and the contents of which are as follows: (1)犹太法典对本款（甲线34 - 3A型， 3号线）包含三个部分，对应到三个意见，其内容分别是： （ 1 ）
A citation, from a baraita, of another tannaitic regulation defining the Mishnah that governs the reading of the "Shema'" in the evening; two sayings of Jose (a Palestinian amora of the 4th cent.), serving to elucidate the baraita (2a, 34-45).引文，从baraita ，另一tannaitic调控界定mishnah执政阅读的"架构" ，在傍晚;两个熟语的圣荷西（一巴勒斯坦amora的第四届一分钱） ，在职澄清baraita （甲， 34-45 ） 。 Remarks on the position of one who is in doubt whether he has read the "Shema'," with analogous cases, according to Jeremiah, whose views were transmitted by Ze'era II.言论上的立场之一，究竟是谁在怀疑他是否有看过"射麻' ， "相类似的情况下，根据耶利米，他们的意见转交ze'era二。 (4th cent.), the first case being decided according to the baraita already mentioned (2a, 45-2b, 4). （第4美分） ，第一宗案件正在根据委托baraita已经提到的（甲， 45乙， 4 ） 。 Another passage from the baraita, designating the appearance of the stars as an indication of the time in question; explanation of this baraita by Abba bar Pappai (transmitter, Phinehas; both of the 4th cent.); other passages on the appearance of the stars as bearing on the ritual, together with a dialectic explanation by Jose b.另一条通道，从baraita ，指定外观星作为标志的时间问题;解释这一baraita由雅伯金曲酒吧pappai （发射机，非尼哈，两个第四。 ） ，其他通道，就出现了星级由于事关仪式，同时推出了辩证的解释，由圣荷西乙 Abin (second half of the 4th cent.) and a saying by Judah b.巴西情报局（下半年的第四届一分钱） ，并说，犹大乙 Pazzi (2b, 5-31).帕齐（ 2B卫星， 5月31日） 。 A baraita on the division between day and night, and other passages bearing on the same subject (ib. lines 31-41). 1 baraita关于分工的白天和夜晚，以及其他段落轴承就同一主题（ ib.线31-41 ） 。 The meaning of "ben ha-shemashot" (twilight), and an answer by Tanḥuma b.所指的"本哈shemashot " （曙光） ，并回答由tanḥuma乙 Abba (latter part of the 4th cent.), together with another solution given by a baraita (ib. lines 41-46).雅伯金曲（后者的一部分第四届一分钱） ，连同另一种解决办法是由一名baraita （ ib.线41-46 ） 。 Discussion of this baraita by Aḥa and Jose (4th cent.); reference by Mani to a question dealing with this subject which he addressed to Hezekiah of Cæsarea (4th cent.) from Mishnah Zab.讨论这个baraita由aḥa及荷西（第4美分） ;参考玛尼的一个问题，在处理这个问题，他给hezekiah的cæsarea （第4次。 ）由mishnah zab 。 i.一。 6, and the answer of the latter (2b, 46-2c, 9). 6 ，并回答了后者（乙， 46 -二C ， 9 ） 。 Amoraic sayings and a baraita on the beginning of the day (ib. lines 9-20). amoraic熟语和baraita于当日开始（ ib.线9-20 ） 。 A sentence of tannaitic origin in no way related to the preceding matters: "One who prays standing must hold his feet straight," and the controversy on this subject between Levi and Simon (3d cent.), the one adding, "like the angels," and the other, "like the priests"; comments on these two comparisons (2c, 20-31).服刑tannaitic原产地，绝不涉及前款事项： "祈祷者常委会必须持有他的脚直" ，并在争议，就这个问题与利维和西蒙（三维。 ） ，其中加入" ，像天使" ，另一方面， "像神职人员" ;就这两个比较（ 2C型， 20-31 ） 。 Further discussion regarding the beginning of the day, introduced by a saying of Ḥanina's (3d cent.); haggadic statements concerning the dawn; a conversation between Ḥiyya the Elder and Simeon b.进一步的讨论就开始了一天，推出的一个说法的ḥanina的（三维美分） ; haggadic报表有关黎明;谈话之间ḥiyya长辈和西麦乙 Ḥalafta (latter part of the tannaitic period); cosmological comments: dimensions of the firmament, and the cosmic distances expressed in units of 50 and 500 years, together with similar haggadic material, chiefly tannaitic in origin; Haggadic sayings on Gen. i. ḥalafta （后者部分的tannaitic期） ;宇宙评论：尺寸的firmament ，与宇宙的距离单位表示的50和500年，再加上类似haggadic材料，主要是tannaitic在原居地; haggadic熟语对将军一。 6, introduced by a saying of Abin's (4th cent.), and including sayings by Rab, Judah b. 6 ，推出一个说法的巴西情报局的（第4美分） ，并包括熟语由Rab的，犹大乙 Pazzi, and Ḥanina; Haggadic material on Isa.帕齐， ḥanina ; haggadic材料伊萨。 xl.销售。 22, introduced by a controversy between Johanan and Simeon b. 22 ，由一个争议之间约哈难和西麦乙 Laḳish (3d cent.), and on Gen. ii. laḳish （三维美分） ，并于将军二。 4 (2c, 31-2d, 11). 4 （ 2C型， 31 -二维， 11 ） 。 On the second part of the first mishnaic sentence; the views of Judah I. and Nathan on the number of the night-watches, and an exegetic discussion of them, with an allusion to Ps.对第二部分的第一mishnaic一句;意见犹大一及弥敦道上的人数夜间手表，并exegetic讨论，其中一个典故到PS 。 cxix. cxix 。 62 ("at midnight"), as well as haggadic material concerning David and his harp, with especial reference to Ps. 62 （ "午夜" ） ，以及haggadic物质有关大卫和他的竖琴，尤其是提到的PS 。 lvii. 57 。 9 (2d, 11-44). 9 （二维， 11-44 ） 。
(2) （ 2 ）
Assi in the name of Johanan: "The ruling of the sages ["until midnight"] is the valid one, and forms the basis for the counsel given by Jose [4th cent.] to the members of the academy" (ib. lines 45-48). assi在名称的约哈难： "执政党的先哲[ " ，直到午夜十二时" ] ，是一个有效的，形式的基础上，为律师所给予的圣荷西[第四。 ]向奥斯卡组委会的成员" （ ib.线45-48 ） 。 Baraita on the reading of the "Shema'" in the synagogue; a question bearing on this matter, and Huna's answer in the name of the Babylonian amora Joseph (ib. lines 48-52), an illustration being given in an anecdote regarding Samuel b. baraita就读的"架构" ，在犹太教堂;一个问题，关系到这件事，而湖南的答案在名称巴比伦amora约瑟夫（ ib.线48-52 ） ，说明正考虑在一个轶事就塞缪尔乙 Naḥman, together with a haggadic saying by him (ib. lines 52-58). naḥman ，连同一haggadic说，由他（ ib.线52-58 ） 。 A contradictory view by Joshua b.矛盾的观点约书亚乙 Levi, together with pertinent haggadic sayings to the effect that the "Shemoneh 'Esreh" must follow immediately the after-benediction of the "Shema'" (ib. lines 59-73).利维，连同相关haggadic熟语，其大意是" shemoneh ' esreh "必须遵循立即离职后功德的"架构" （ ib.线59-73 ） 。
(3) （ 3 ）
R. Gamaliel's view compared with an analogous opinion of Simeon b.传译加马' s查看比较类似的意见西麦乙 Yoḥai, together with a question which remains unanswered (2d, 74-3a, 3). yoḥai ，连同一个问题，仍然是悬而未决（二维， 74 - 3 ， 3 ） 。 RH i.铑一。 1, 2: These two paragraphs, which are combined into one in Babli, deal with the commencement of the four seasons (new years): Nisan 1, Elul 1, Tishri 1, and Shebaṭ 1 (or 15). 1 ， 2 ：这两个段落，这是合而为一在babli ，处理与展开四季（新的一年） ：尼散月14日1 ， elul 1 ，提斯利1 ， shebaṭ 1 （或15 ） 。 The Talmud on par.犹太法典相提并论。 1 is found in 56a, 44-56d, 52, and that on par.一日发现在第56A号， 44 56d ， 52 ，并就相提并论。 2 in 56d, 52-57a, 30. 2 56d ， 52 - 50 ， 30 。 Talmud on par.犹太法典相提并论。 1: 1 ：
(a) （一）
The "new year of the kings." "新的一年里的国王" 。 Exegetic deductions and elucidations, beginningwith the interpretation of Ex. exegetic克扣和阐发， beginningwith的解释当然。 xii.十二。 1; Johanan's explanation of II Chron. 1 ，约哈难的解释二慢性。 iii.三。 2; a controversy between Hananiah and Mani regarding the same verse; an explanation by Aḥa of Ex. 2 ;争议之间哈拿尼雅和玛尼就同一韵文;解释，由aḥa特惠。 xii.十二。 1; a baraita by Samuel on the same verse; and similar material (56a, 44-56b, 10).一; baraita由塞缪尔就同一韵文;相似材料（第56A号， 44 - 56b ， 10 ） 。 Ḥanina's saying that even the years of Gentile kings were dated from Nisan, and the confirmation thereof by Biblical passages from Haggai and Zechariah, together with the contradictory view of the Babylonian amora 'Efa or Ḥefa; remarks and objections by Jonah and Isaac (56b, 10-29). ḥanina的说，连多年的gentile国王日期分别由尼散月14日，并予以确认，由圣经通道，从哈该书和zechariah ，加上相互矛盾的看法巴比伦amora '全民教育或ḥefa ;言论和反对意见，由约拿和艾萨克（ 56b ， 10月29日） 。 Jonah on the practical importance of the new year for dating business documents (ib. lines 29-33).约拿就实际的重要性，新的一年里为约会商务文件（ ib.线29-33 ） 。 On the new year in the chronology of the kings of Israel and Judah, together with an interpretation of I Kings ii.在新的一年里，在年谱中的国王，以色列和犹大，连同解读王二。 11, and several haggadic passages referring to David (ib. lines 33-52). 11 ，和几个haggadic通道，是指大卫（ ib.线33-52 ） 。
(b) （二）
The "new year of the feasts." "新的一年里的节日" 。 Statement that according to Simeon b.声明表示，根据西麦乙 Yoḥai Nisan 1 marks the beginning of the year for the sequence of the feasts; a tannaitic midrash of considerable length on Lev. yoḥai尼散1马克今年年初，为序列席间; tannaitic midrash相当的篇幅介绍列弗。 xxiii.二十三。 38, and a reply by Ela (4th cent.) to a question bearing on this matter; additional, remarks and objections by amoraim of the fourth century, together with the citation of a saying by the scholars "of that place" (ie, Babylonia; 56b, 52-56c, 15); various discussions on kindred subjects, especially those whose content involved halakic exegesis (56c, 15-56d, 14). 38 ，并答复的ELA （第4美分） ，以一个问题，关系到这件事;额外的，言论和反对意见，由亚摩兰的第四个世纪，愿与引文的一个说法是由学者" ，这个地方的" （即巴比伦王国; 56b ， 52 - 56c ， 15岁） ;各种讨论骨肉科目，特别是那些内容涉及halakic训诂学（ 56c ， 15 56d ， 14 ） 。
(c) （三）
The "new year for tithes of cattle," declared by Meïr to be Elul 1. "新的一年tithes黄牛" ，宣布由meïr被elul 1 。 Proof by the Babylonian amora Huna, who deduced an opposing view from Ps.证明由巴比伦amora湖南，推导出另一种相反的看法，从聚苯乙烯。 lxv. lxv 。 14; the relation between Ben 'Azzai, who is mentioned in a baraita belonging to this passage, and Akiba (ib. lines 14-33); interpretation of Mishnah Bek. 14个;关系奔'缅拉比，他们提到在一个baraita属于这一通道，并秋叶（ ib.线14-33 ） ;诠释mishnah bek 。 vii.七。 7 as being analogous in content; a citation by Mani of a halakic exegesis by his father, Jonah (ib. lines 33-52).七日被类似内容;引文由玛尼一个halakic训诂学由他的父亲，约拿（ ib.线33-52 ） 。
Talmud on par.犹太法典相提并论。 2: (a) Tishri 1, the "new year for the counting of the years." 2 ： （一）提斯利1 ， "新的一年里为计数的岁月" 。 Deductions from Biblical passages; discussion on the subject between Jonah and the members of the college; Jonah's quotation of Ḥanina's saying on the names of the months, and a saying of Simeon b.扣除圣经段落;就此议题进行讨论与约拿和委员团成员;约拿的报价ḥanina的话说姓名的几个月里，一个说法的西麦乙 Laḳish on the names of the angels (56d, 52-77). laḳish上的名字天使（ 56d ， 52-77 ） 。 (b) The "new year for the Sabbatical years and the years of jubilee." （二） "新的一年里为安息年和多年的银禧" 。 Biblical inference (56d, 77-57a, 2).圣经的推理（ 56d ， 77 - 50 ， 2 ） 。 (c) The "new year for the planting of trees." （三） "新的一年里，为种植树木" 。 Explanation and exegetical deduction (ib. lines 3-14).解释和训诂扣减（ ib.线3-14 ） 。 (d) The "new year for vegetables." （四） "新的一年里为蔬菜" 。 Elucidation and discussion (ib. lines 14-23).澄清和讨论（ ib.线14-23 ） 。 (e) The "new year for trees," this section being supplemented by an example from a tannaitic account of Akiba's practise, with explanations (ib. lines 23-30). （五） "新的一年里，为树木， "这一节，辅以一个例子，从一个tannaitic帐户的秋叶的练习，与解释（ ib.线23-30 ） 。
Further Examples.进一步的例子。
Giṭ. giṭ 。 ii.二。 1: Inadequate attestation of the preparation of a bill of divorce. 1 ：不足核签的编制一项法案离婚。 The Talmud on the passage (44a, 34-71); a special case in the Mishnah shown to contain the opinion of Judah b.犹太法典上通过（ 44 ， 34-71 ） ;一个特殊的情况，在mishnah显示，以控制舆论的犹大乙 Ilai (ib. lines 34-40); two casuistic questions by Jose and the Babylonian amora Ḥisda, and the answers furnished by the Mishnah (ib. lines 40-50); a more detailed discussion of another question of similar content, with reference to a controversy between Johanan and Simeon b. ilai （ ib.线34-40 ） ;两个诡辩的问题，由圣何塞和巴比伦amora ḥisda ，答由其mishnah （ ib.线40-50 ） ;更为详细的讨论另一个问题是类似的内容，是参考一争论之间约哈难和西麦乙 Laḳish, together with notes thereon by Ammi and Ze'era, and a discussion concluding with a comment by Mani (ib. lines 50-71). laḳish ，加上附注的AMMI所和ze'era ，并讨论了总结与评论，玛尼（ ib.线50-71 ） 。 BB i. BB心跳一。 6: (a) A short exegetic proof by Ela, based on Prov. 6 ： （一）短期exegetic空调的ELA ，根据省。 xviii.十八。 11 (12d, 71 et seq.). 11 （ 12 D ， 71页起） 。 (b) A baraita dealing with analogous matter, together with a remark by Jose b. （二） baraita处理类似的事情，加上这句话，由圣荷西乙 Abin (ib. lines 72-75).巴西情报局（ ib.线72-75 ） 。 Although this analysis of the contents of four parts of Yerushalmi gives no adequate idea of the structure of the entire work, it will serve to show the difference between its several parts in regard both to their length and to their amplifications of the simple explanations of the Mishnah.虽然这一分析的内容包括四个部分的yerushalmi没有足够的思想结构的全部工作中，它一定会以示区别，其几部分，在这两个方面给他们的长度和其扩增的简单解释的mishnah 。 A comparison of the portions of the Palestinian Talmud here summarized with the corresponding sections of Babli, as given below, is especially instructive.比较了部分巴勒斯坦犹太法典这里总结了与相应章节babli ，正如下文，特别是启发性。
Passages Repeated.通道重演。
Yerushalmi, when regarded as a work of literature, is noteworthy for a textual peculiarity which is characteristic of it, though found also in Babli, namely, the large number of literal repetitions. yerushalmi ，当被视为工作的文学，值得注意的是，对于语篇的特殊性，这是特点，虽还发现，在babli ，即大量的字面重复之处。 Entire passages, sometimes whole columns, of the Talmud are found in two, occasionally in three, separate treatises, in which they differ from each other by mere variants, most of them due to corruptions of the text.整个通道，有时整个栏目，该塔木德经发现有两个，偶尔在三，单独论文，其中，他们各不相同，由单纯变种，他们大多数是由于腐败的案文。 These repetitions throw some light on the redaction of the Talmudic text, since they prove that before the editing of the treatises was undertaken a uniform mass of material was already at hand in a definitely revised form; they likewise show that in the compilation of the Talmud one portion was explained by another, as was natural in view of the character of the contents.这些重复扔一些光对编撰学的talmudic文本，因为它们证明之前，编辑的论文工作是一个统一的大规模的材料已经在手，在肯定修订表格，他们同样表明，在编纂犹太法典其中部分进行了解释，因为是天然鉴于性质的内容。 The opportunity was gladly seized, moreover, to repeat didactic material in passages where it did not strictly belong.借此机会愉快地抓住不放，而且，重复教材，在通道，而它不属于严格。 These repetitions are obviously of great value in the textual criticism of the Talmud.这些重复的，显然具有极大的价值，在考据学的犹太法典。 Since sufficient attention has never yet been paid to this phenomenon of Yerushalmi, a list is here given of those passages of the first order, Zera'im, which are repeated in other orders.因为足够的重视，从未尚未支付给这一现象的yerushalmi ，名单是在这里给那些段落的第一个命令，泽拉伊姆，这是重复了其他命令。 It must be noted, however, that this list includes neither citations based on passages of another treatise nor parallel passages consisting of a single sentence.但必须注意，不过，这份名单既不包括引文基于通道的另一论文也不平行通道构成一个单句。
(a) （一）
Passages from the order i.通道，从议事程序一。 repeated in the order ii.: Ber.重复命令二：误码率。 3b, lines 10-55 = Shab. 3B室线路10-55 =沙巴。 3a, 69-3b, 20.第3 A ， 69 - 3B型， 20 。 Ber.误码率。 4a, 30-56 = Sheḳ.第4 A ， 30-56 = sheḳ 。 47a, 13-59 = M. Ḳ. 47A条， 13-59 =米ḳ 。 83c, 40-83d, 8. 83c ， 40 83d ， 8 。 Ber.误码率。 5a, 33-62 = M. Ḳ. 5A条， 33-62 =米ḳ 。 82b, 14-47. 82b ， 14-47 。 Ber.误码率。 5d, 14-20 = Shab. 5 ， 14-20 =沙巴。 3a, 55-61.第3 A ， 55-61 。 Ber.误码率。 5d, 65-6a, 9 = M. Ḳ. 5 ， 65 6 ， 9 =米ḳ 。 83a, 5-27.第83A条， 5月27日。 Ber.误码率。 6c, 4-17 = Yoma 44d, 58-68. 6 C条， 4月17日= yoma 44 D ， 58-68 。 Ber.误码率。 6d, 60-67 = Meg. 6D条， 60-67 =梅格。 73d, 15-22. 73 D ， 15-22 。 Ber.误码率。 7b, 70-7d, 25 = Ta'an.今年7月70 - 7天， 25 = ta'an 。 67c, 12-67d, 47. 67 C条， 12 - 67d ， 47 。 Ber.误码率。 7d, 75-8a, 59 = Ta'an. 7D条， 75 - 8A型， 59 = ta'an 。 65c, 2-69. 65 C ， 2-69 。 Ber.误码率。 8c, 60-69 = RH 59d, 16-25. 8C条， 60-69 =铑59 D条， 16-25 。 Ber.误码率。 9a, 70-9b, 47 = Ta'an. 9A条， 70 - 9B条， 47 = ta'an 。 63c, 66-63d, 44. 63c ， 66 63d ， 44 。 Ber.误码率。 9c, 20-31 = Meg. 9C条， 20-31 =梅格。 75c, 8-19. 75c ， 8-19 。 Ber.误码率。 9c, 49-54 = Meg. 9C条， 49-54 =梅格。 75b, 31-36. 75b ， 31-36 。 Ber.误码率。 10a, 32-43 = Pes.第十A 32-43 =狗。 29c, 16-27. 29 C款， 16日至27日。 Ber.误码率。 11c, 14-21 = Pes.碳-11 ， 14-21 =狗。 37c, 54-71. 37 C ， 54-71 。 Ber.误码率。 12c, 16-25 = 'Er.碳-12 ， 16-25 = '呃。 22b, 29-37. 22 B条， 29-37 。 Ber.误码率。 12c, 44-62 = Suk.碳-12 ， 44-62 =淑。 24a, 6-21 = Meg. 24A条， 6月21日=梅格。 72a, 15-31. 72A及15-31 。 Ber.误码率。 13d, 72-14a, 30 = Ta'an.第13 ， 72 - 14 A条， 30 = ta'an 。 64a, 75-64b, 35. 64 ， 75 - 64b ， 35 。 Pe'ah 15a, 67-15b, 21 = Ḥag. pe'ah 15A条， 67 - 15B条， 21 = ḥag 。 76b, 24-53. 76b ， 24-53 。 Pe'ah 17a, 39-72 = Ḥag. pe'ah 17A条， 39-72 = ḥag 。 76b, 13-47. 76b ， 13-47 。 Pe'ah 18d, 16-33 = Sheḳ. pe'ah 18d ， 16-33 = sheḳ 。 46a, 48-67. 46A条， 48-67 。 Pe'ah 18d, 66-19a, 5 = Sheḳ. pe'ah 18d ， 66 - 19A条， 5 = sheḳ 。 48c, 75-48d, 13. 48c ， 75 48d ， 13 。 Pe'ah 21a, 25-29 = Sheḳ. pe'ah 21 ， 25-29 = sheḳ 。 48d, 55-58. 48d ， 55-58 。 Dem.数字高程模型。