Soul is a term rarely used with precise definition in philosophy, religion, or common life.灵魂，是一个词，很少使用精确的定义在哲学，宗教，或共同生活。 It is generally regarded as descriptive of an entity related to but distinguishable from the body--the spiritual part of human beings that animates their physical existence and survives death.它被普遍认为是描述性的一个实体有关，但有别于身体-精神的一部分人认为，动画，他们的身体存在和生存的死因。
Primitive religions tend to associate the soul with the vital force in humans and often identify it with particular parts or functions of the body (the heart or kidneys, the breath or pulse).原始宗教往往联想到灵魂与生力军，在人类和经常找出它与特定部分或职能的机构（心脏或肾脏，呼吸或脉搏） 。 Other religions show traces of such animistic ideas.其它宗教的痕迹，显示这种animistic想法。 In Hinduism, the Atman (originally meaning "breath") is the individual factor that is indestructible and that after death is reborn in another existence.在印度教，阿特曼（原来意思是"呼吸" ）是个别因素，是坚不可摧的，并认为人死后重生，是在另一个的存在。 But Atman is identified with Brahman, the Source of all things to which the soul ultimately returns when it ceases to have a separate existence.但是阿特曼是确定与婆罗门，从源头上的一切事物，以它的灵魂，最终回报的时候，便不再有一个单独的存在。 (Buddhism, on the other hand, repudiates the notion of Atman, positing the theory of Anatta, nonself.) Early Jewish thought did not conceive the soul as existing apart from the body except in the shadowy realm of departed spirits (Sheol). （佛教，在另一方面，否定概念的阿特曼，定位理论anatta ，非自衡） 。早期犹太人的思想没有受孕的灵魂，因为现有的除了身体，除了在阴影境界离开烈酒（ sheol ） 。 Greek and especially Platonic thought divided humans into two parts: body and soul.希腊，尤其是柏拉图式的思考把人分成两部分：身体与灵魂。 The soul, often referred to as the psyche, was considered both preexistent and immortal.灵魂，而且往往被称为心理，是既考虑到preexistent和不朽。
The early Christian church lived under the influence of Greek ideas about the body and soul, although biblical teachings about Resurrection were superimposed on them.早期基督教教会生活的影响下，希腊模糊认识，身体与灵魂，虽然圣经教义约复活叠加在他们身上。 Throughout the history of the Christian church, there has been no clearly defined and universally accepted metaphysical conception of the soul.在整个历史上的基督教教堂，但至今仍无明确的和普遍接受的形而上学观的心灵。 Nevertheless, Christian theology and worship have adhered firmly to the conviction of personal survival after death rooted in belief in the love of God and the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead.然而，基督教神学和宗教工作坚持以坚定的信念，个人的生存死亡后，根植于信仰上帝的爱和复活的耶稣从死里复活。
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Bibliography
参考书目
Cullmann, Oscar,
Immortality of the Soul or Resurrection of the Dead? cullmann
，奥斯卡奖，灵魂或死人复活？ (1958); Kenny,
Anthony JP, The Anatomy of the Soul: Historical Essays in the Philosophy of Mind
(1973); Laird, John, The Idea of Soul (1970); Rank, Otto, Psychology and the
Soul (1961); Swinburne, Richard, The Evolution of the Soul (1986). （
1958年） ;肯尼安东尼太平绅士，解剖灵魂：历史散文，在心灵哲学（ 1973年） ;领主，约翰，这个想法的灵魂（ 1970年） ;秩，奥托，心理学和灵魂（
1961年） ;斯温伯尔，理查德，演化的灵魂（ 1986 ） 。
A Soul is a living being, life principle, person, or individual spiritual nature.一个民族的灵魂，是一个活的生命，生命的原则，任何人，或个人的精神本质。 It may be ascribed to animals (Gen. 1:30; Rev. 8:9) and to God (Lev. 26:11; Isa. 42:1).这可能归因于动物（创1:30 ;牧师8时09分） ，并神（ lev. 26:11 ;伊萨。 42:1 ） 。 It is often used interchangeably with spirit, although distinctions that begin to appear in the OT are carried forward in the NT.它经常互换使用与精神，虽然区别，即开始出现在城市旅游局正进行着在新台币。 Thus while soul in the NT normally means an individual spiritual entity with a material body so that a person is thought of as a body-soul, spirit is the special gift of God which places one in relationship to him.因此，尽管灵魂在新台币通常是指一个人的精神实体与物质体，使一个人的思想，作为全民健身的灵魂，精神，是特别神的恩赐，其中地方之一，在关系到他。 Scripture states that Jesus gave his spirit to his Father (Luke 23:46; John 19:30), but elsewhere it is said that he gave his soul as a ransom for many (Matt. 20:28; John 10:15).经文中说，耶稣是他的精神，以他的父亲（路加福音23:46 ;约翰19:30 ） ，但在其他地方，这是说，他给他的灵魂作为赎金许多。 （ 20时28分;约翰10:15 ） 。 In general terms then it can be said that soul in Scripture is conceived to be an immaterial principle created by God, which is usually united to a body and gives it life; however, the soul continues to exist after death in human beings (Matt. 10:28; James 5:20; Rev. 6:9; 20:4), a condition which is ended at the close of this age (I Cor. 15:35-55).在一般条款，那么，可以说这灵魂在经文中的构想是一个无关紧要的原则，上帝创造的，这是通常团结，以一个机构，并赋予它生命，但灵魂仍然存在，死亡后，在人的。 （ 10:28 ;詹姆斯5点20分;牧师6时09分; 20时04分） ，条件是结束，在结束这个年龄（ i肺心病。 15:35-55 ） 。
Augustine's great influence was felt in the church in his teaching about the soul as in other matters.奥古斯丁的影响很大有人认为，在教会在他的教学灵魂，因为在其他事项。 Condemning the heathen notions that the soul was originally a part of God, an idea which he calls blasphemy, that it is corporeal, or that it becomes polluted through the body, he saw the soul as a rational-spiritual substance made "like God," and made by him, sustaining and directing the body (The Greatness of the Soul, XIII, 22).谴责异教徒概念的灵魂本来是一个部分的上帝，一个概念，他呼吁亵渎的，它是有形的，或者它成为无公害透过身体，他亲眼看到了灵魂，作为一个理性精神实质作了"就像上帝， " ，并作出了由他保持和指挥机构（伟大的灵魂，第十三章， 22条） 。 Concerning its origin and whether it was created by God or transmitted by parents, Augustine might be unsure (On the Soul and Its Origin, I, 27), but of its "proper abode" and "homeland" he was certain, and that is God (The Greatness of the Soul, I, 2).关于它的起源，它到底是上帝创造的，或转交家长，奥古斯丁可能不清楚（关于灵魂和它的原产地，我， 27 ） ，但它的"正当居留权"和"故乡" ，他是可以肯定的，这就是神（伟大的灵魂，我， 2 ） 。
Arguments cited in favor of creationism were (1) that Scripture distinguishes the origin of man's soul and body (Eccl. 12:7; Isa. 42:5; Zech. 12:1; Heb. 12:9); (2) that creationism preserves the idea of the soul as a simple, indivisible substance better than traducianism, which requires the idea of the division of the soul and its derivation from the parents; and (3) that it makes more credible Christ's retention of a pure soul than does traducianism. 论据列举主张神创论者（ 1 ）表示，经文区别于人类起源的灵魂与身体（传道书12时07分;伊萨。 42:5 ;撒加利亚12:1 ;以弗所书12时09分） ; （ 2 ）神创论保留的想法灵魂，是一个简单的，不可分割的物质优于traducianism ，这就需要构思，分工灵魂及其衍生物，由家长及（ 3 ） ，因为它使更可信基督的保留一个纯净的灵魂比是否traducianism 。
In behalf of traducianism it was said (1) that certain Scripture supports it (Gen. 2:2; Heb. 7:10; cf. I Cor. 11:8); (2) that it offers the best theory for the whole race having sinned in Adam; (3) that it is supported by the analogy of lower life in which numerical increase is obtained by derivation; (4) that it teaches that parents beget the whole child, body and soul, and not just the body; and (5) that it was necessary for Christ to have received his soul from the soul of Mary in order to redeem the human soul. 在代表traducianism有人说， （ 1 ）表示，某些经文支持它（创2:2 ;以弗所书7时10分;比照，我肺心病。 11时08分） ; （ 2 ） ，它提供了最好的理论，为整个比赛后，犯罪亚当; （ 3 ） ，它是由类比的寿命较低，其中增加的数值，得到了推导; （ 4 ）表示，它教导家长带来孩子的全面发展，身体与灵魂，而不仅仅是身体以及（ 5 ）表示，要为基督有收到他的心灵，从灵魂的玛丽为了挽救人的心灵。
Augustine carefully weighed the arguments on each side of the controversy, leaning toward traducianism for a time even while he saw the difficulty of retaining the soul's integrity with this hypothesis; later he admitted that he was perplexed and baffled by the question.奥古斯丁在认真权衡的争论一边一国的争议，但倾向于traducianism ，一时间连，而他看到的难度，留住灵魂的完整性与这一假说，后来他承认，他困惑不解，并感到困惑的问题。
A contemporary theologian who takes essentially the same stance is GC Berkouwer, who calls the controversy "unfruitful," inasmuch as it wrongly assumes that the issue is one of horizontal or vertical relations.一个当代神学家者，基本上是相同的立场是气相色谱berkouwer ，世卫组织呼吁争议的"徒劳" ，因为它错误地假设问题，是一个横向或纵向的关系。 "Such a way of putting it is far too feeble an attempt to render adequately the greatness of the work of God" (Man: The Image of God, 292). "这样的一种说法，这实在是过于软弱，企图使其充分伟大的工作，以神之名" （文：上帝的画像， 292 ） 。 The God of Israel does not create only in the distant past, but he is constantly active in human history, the Creator in horizontal relationships as well as others.神以色列并不只创造了在遥远的过去，但他不断活跃在人类历史上，造物主在横向关系以及其他国家。 To speak about a separate origin of the soul he sees as impossible biblically, inasmuch as this creationist theory sees the relationship to God as "something added to the 'essentially human,' which later is defined independently as 'soul' and 'body.'谈论一个独立起源的灵魂，他认为是不可能的圣经，因为这creationist理论认为关系到上帝"的东西加入到'本质上的人， ' ，后来是指独立'灵魂'和'身体' Both soul and body can then be viewed in different 'causal' relationships without reference to some intrinsic non-causal relationship to God. If, however, it is impossible to speak of the essence of man except in this latter religious relationship, then it also becomes impossible to introduce duality into the origin of soul and of body within the unitary human individual" (303).这两个灵魂与身体，然后看在不同的'因果关系'的关系，没有参考一些内在的非因果关系，以上帝，但如果这是不可能说话的人的本质，除了在后宗教的关系，那么，它也成为不可能引进偶成的起源，灵魂和身体内部的单一个别的人" （ 303 ） 。
ME
Osterhaven我osterhaven
(Elwell Evangelical Dictionary)
（ Elwell宣布了福音字典）
Bibliography
参考书目
GC Berkouwer,
Man: The Image of God; A. Dihle et al., TDNT, IX, 608-66; CA Beckwith, SHERK,
XI, 12-14; C. Hodge, Systematic Theology, II; L. Berkhof, Systematic
Theology.气相色谱berkouwer ，男子：上帝的画像;甲dihle等人， tdnt ，第九， 608-66 ;钙贝克维斯， sherk
，十一， 12-14 ，人参， Hodge的，有系统的神学，二;研究，伯克霍夫，系统化神学。
There are four
theories of the origin of the individual soul:有4个理论的起源，个体的灵魂：
Genesis 2:7 tells of God's breathing into man the breath of life (a soul) implying that He never repeated doing that after Adam.成因2时07分告诉上帝的呼吸进入人的呼吸生活（灵魂）暗示说，他从来没有重复这样做之后，亚当。 This seems to favor Traducianism, but arguments for the other alternatives have sometimes been offered based on that same Scripture.这似乎有利于traducianism ，但论点，为其他方法有时被提供基于同一经文。
The concept of Soul is so esoteric that there are some scholars who deny the very existence of it, partly because there has never been any concrete evidence that proves its existence.这个概念的灵魂是如此深奥了，有一些学者否认存在的，部分是因为世上从来没有任何具体的证据来证明它的存在。 Of course, in that event, any discussion regarding the origin of the Soul becomes meaningless.当然，在这种情况下，讨论任何关于产地的灵魂变得毫无意义。
(Greek psyche; Latin anima; French ame; German Seele). （希赛琪;拉丁语动物;法语ame ;德语seele ） 。
The question of the reality of the soul and its distinction from the body is among the most important problems of philosophy, for with it is bound up the doctrine of a future life.问题的现实的灵魂和它的区别，从身体，是其中最重要的问题，哲学，因为它必然增加学说作为未来的生活。 Various theories as to the nature of the soul have claimed to be reconcilable with the tenet of immortality, but it is a sure instinct that leads us to suspect every attack on the substantiality or spirituality of the soul as an assault on the belief in existence after death.各种理论，以性质的灵魂都声称自己调和与特尼特不朽的，但它是一个肯定的本能，这使我们怀疑所有的攻击就实体性或灵性的灵魂，作为进攻的信念，在以后的存在死因。 The soul may be defined as the ultimate internal principle by which we think, feel, and will, and by which our bodies are animated.灵魂可以被界定为最终内部的原则，我们认为，使用感觉和意愿，并通过我们的身体都是动画片。 The term "mind" usually denotes this principle as the subject of our conscious states, while "soul" denotes the source of our vegetative activities as well.而言， "心" ，通常是指这个原则为题材，我们有意识地国，而"灵魂" ，是指来源，我们的植物人活动。 That our vital activities proceed from a principle capable of subsisting in itself, is the thesis of the substantiality of the soul: that this principle is not itself composite, extended, corporeal, or essentially and intrinsically dependent on the body, is the doctrine of spirituality.我们的重要活动，从原则上能够生存，本身就是论文的实体性的灵魂：这一原则本身不是复合材料，延长了，是有形的，还是本质上和本质上依赖于身体，是中庸的灵性。 If there be a life after death, clearly the agent or subject of our vital activities must be capable of an existence separate from the body.如果有一个死后的生命，显然代理人或受我国重要的活动，都必须具备一个单独的存在，从体内。 The belief in an animating principle in some sense distinct from the body is an almost inevitable inference from the observed facts of life.相信，在一个生动活泼的原则，在一定意义上有别于身体是一个几乎不可避免的推理，从观察事实的生活方式。 Even uncivilized peoples arrive at the concept of the soul almost without reflection, certainly without any severe mental effort.甚至一些不文明的人民到达概念的灵魂，几乎没有反射，更绝对没有任何严重的精神努力。 The mysteries of birth and death, the lapse of conscious life during sleep and in swooning, even the commonest operations of imagination and memory, which abstract a man from his bodily presence even while awake-all such facts invincibly suggest the existence of something besides the visible organism, internal to it, but to a large extent independent of it, and leading a life of its own.神秘的出生和死亡，转瞬已意识到生活在睡觉，并在swooning ，即使是最常见的运作想象力和记忆，抽象一名男子从他的身体存在，即使苏醒，而所有这些事实invincibly表明存在的东西，除了有形的有机体，内部给它，但在相当大程度上独立于它，并领导着自己的生命。 In the rude psychology of the primitive nations, the soul is often represented as actually migrating to and fro during dreams and trances, and after death haunting the neighbourhood of its body.在粗鲁心理学的原始民族，一个是灵魂，是常派代表作为实际移转至驶过，在梦想与trances ，死后作祟邻里的身体。 Nearly always it is figured as something extremely volatile, a perfume or a breath.几乎总是是想通看成是极不稳定，香水或呼气。 Often, as among the Fijians, it is represented as a miniature replica of the body, so small as to be invisible.通常，作为其中斐济人的，它代表的是作为一个微型的翻版，身体这么小，至于被无形。 The Samoans have a name for the soul which means "that which comes and goes".该属萨摩亚人有一个名字为灵魂，意思是"说，这是有悖于" 。 Many peoples, such as the Dyaks and Sumatrans, bind various parts of the body with cords during sickness to prevent the escape of the soul.许多国家的人民，如以达雅族和sumatrans ，约束各部分的身体与电线生病期间，以防止逃逸的灵魂。 In short, all the evidence goes to show that Dualism, however uncritical and inconsistent, is the instinctive creed of "primitive man" (see ANIMISM).总之，所有证据都显示一切都说明二元论，但批判和不一致的，是出于本能的信条的"原始人" （见万物有灵论） 。
THE SOUL IN ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY灵魂在古代哲学
Early literature bears the same stamp of Dualism.早期文献熊同邮票的二元论。 In the "Rig-Veda" and other liturgical books of India, we find frequent references to the coming and going of manas (mind or soul).在"造-吠陀"等礼仪书籍的印度，我们发现经常提到的来来去去的玛纳斯（主意或灵魂） 。 Indian philosophy, whether Brahminic or Buddhistic, with its various systems of metempsychosis, accentuated the distinction of soul and body, making the bodily life a mere transitory episode in the existence of the soul.印度哲学，是否brahminic或佛教，其各项制度的metempsychosis ，加剧了区分的灵魂与身体，使身体的生命只是短暂的插曲中所存在的灵魂。 They all taught the doctrine of limited immortality, ending either with the periodic world-destruction (Brahminism) or with attainment of Nirvana (Buddhism).他们都教教义的有限不死，结束了，要么定期世界毁灭（ brahminism ）或达到涅槃（佛教） 。 The doctrine of a world-soul in a highly abstract form is met with as early as the eighth century before Christ, when we find it described as "the unseen seer, the unheard hearer, the unthought thinker, the unknown knower, the Eternal in which space is woven and which is woven in it."该学说的一个世界的灵魂，在一个高度抽象形式是会见，因为早在公元8世纪，在基督之前，当我们发现它描述为"看不见的季节能效比，闻所未闻聴， unthought思想家，未知能知，在永恒只要是有空位，梭织，这是机织，在这" 。
In Greece, on the other hand, the first essays of philosophy took a positive and somewhat materialistic direction, inherited from the pre-philosophic age, from Homer and the early Greek religion.在希腊，但另一方面，第一散文哲学采取了积极和有点功利的方向，继承自前哲学时代，从荷马和早期希腊宗教。 In Homer, while the distinction of soul and body is recognized, the soul is hardly conceived as possessing a substantial existence of its own.在荷马，而区分的灵魂与身体，是公认的，一个是灵魂，是难以设想为拥有大量存在，其自己的活力。 Severed from the body, it is a mere shadow, incapable of energetic life.切断从体内，它是一个纯粹的阴影，无法精力充沛的生活。 The philosophers did something to correct such views.哲学家做了些，以纠正这种看法。 The earliest school was that of the Hylozoists; these conceived the soul as a kind of cosmic force, and attributed animation to the whole of nature.最早的学校是该hylozoists ;这些构思的灵魂，作为一种宇宙的力量，导致了动画到整个大自然。 Any natural force might be designated psyche: thus Thales uses this term for the attractive force of the magnet, and similar language is quoted even from Anaxagoras and Democritus.任何天然的力量可能会被指定琪：所以泰雷兹使用这个词，为引力的磁石，和类似的语言，甚至引用了从阿那克萨戈拉和德谟克利特。 With this we may compare the "mind-stuff" theory and Pan-psychism of certain modern scientists.与此我们可以比较一下"的心态的东西"的理论和泛psychism某些现代科学家。 Other philosophers again described the soul's nature in terms of substance.其他哲学家再次把灵魂的性质实质内容。 Anaximander gives it an aeriform constitution, Heraclitus describes it as a fire.克西曼德赋予它一个aeriform宪法，赫拉克利特把它描述为一个防火。 The fundamental thought is the same.基本思路是一样的。 The cosmic ether or fire is the subtlest of the elements, the nourishing flame which imparts heat, life, sense, and intelligence to all things in their several degrees and kinds.宇宙醚或火警是极细微的分子，滋补火焰，其中imparts热，生活常识，智力，所有的东西在他们几个度和种类。 The Pythagoreans taught that the soul is a harmony, its essence consisting in those perfect mathematical ratios which are the law of the universe and the music of the heavenly spheres.该pythagoreans教导说灵魂是一个和谐，其本质构成，在这些完美的数学的比率，这是国际法的宇宙和音乐的天堂的各个领域。 With this doctrine was combined, according to Cicero, the belief in a universal world-spirit, from which all particular souls are derived.这一学说相结合，根据西塞罗，信念，在一个普遍的世界精神，使所有尤其是心灵的计算公式。
All these early theories were cosmological rather than psychological in character.所有这些早期的理论宇宙学，而不是心理性的。 Theology, physics, and mental science were not as yet distinguished.神学，物理，心理科学的人还不能分辨。 It is only with the rise of dialectic and the growing recognition of the problem of knowledge that a genuinely psychological theory became possible.它不仅与崛起的辩证，并日益认识到这个问题的知识，一个真正的心理学理论成为可能。 In Plato the two standpoints, the cosmological and the epistemological, are found combined.在柏拉图的两个立场，宇宙学与认识论，发现结合起来。 Thus in the "Timaeus" (p. 30) we find an account derived from Pythagorean sources of the origin of the soul.因此，在"提玛友斯" （第30页）我们发现一个帐户源自毕达哥拉斯来源起源的心灵。 First the world-soul is created according to the laws of mathematical symmetry and musical concord.第一世界的灵魂，是创造了按规律办事的数学对称性和音乐和谐。 It is composed of two elements, one an element of "sameness" (tauton), corresponding to the universal and intelligible order of truth, and the other an element of distinction or "otherness" (thateron), corresponding to the world of sensible and particular existences.它是由两个机构组成要素，其中一个要素的"共同性" （于陶顿） ，相对应的普遍性和理解，为了真理，和其他元素的区分或"异类" （ thateron ） ，相当于世界上的明智和尤其是存在的。 The individual human soul is constructed on the same plan.个别人的灵魂，是建于同样的计划。
Sometimes, as in the "Phaedrus", Plato teaches the doctrine of plurality of souls (cf. the well-known allegory of the charioteer and the two steeds in that dialogue).有时，如在"菲得洛斯" ，柏拉图教教义的多元性的心灵（参见著名的寓言的charioteer和两个骏在对话中） 。 The rational soul was located in the head, the passionate or spirited soul in the breast, the appetitive soul in the abdomen.理性的灵魂，是位于头部，或激情昂扬的灵魂，在乳腺， appetitive灵魂在腹部。 In the "Republic", instead of the triple soul, we find the doctrine of three elements within the complex unity of the single soul.在"中华民国" ，而非三重灵魂，我们必须找出一个中庸三个要素内部的复杂统一的单一灵魂。 The question of immortality was a principal subject of Plato's speculations.问题不死是一个主要议题柏拉图的揣测。 His account of the origin of the soul in the "Timaeus" leads him to deny the intrinsic immortality even of the world-soul, and to admit only an immortality conditional on the good pleasure of God.他交代了原产地的灵魂，在"提玛友斯"导致他否认内在不死，甚至整个世界的心灵，并承认只有一个不朽有条件就高兴的，好叫上帝的。 In the "Phaedo" the chief argument for the immortality of the soul is based on the nature of intellectual knowledge interpreted on the theory of reminiscence; this of course implies the pre-existence of the soul, and perhaps in strict logic its eternal pre-existence.在"斐多篇"的主要理由之一，为灵魂，是基于对大自然的智力知识解释论怀旧，这当然意味着预先存在的灵魂，也许在严格的逻辑，其永恒的预存在。 There is also an argument from the soul's necessary participation in the idea of life, which, it is argued, makes the idea of its extinction impossible.此外，还有一个说法，从灵魂的必要参与的想法生活，其中，有一种观点，使思想，它的灭绝是不可能的。 These various lines of argument are nowhere harmonized in Plato (see IMMORTALITY).这些不同线路的说法是行不通的统一，在柏拉图（见永生） 。 The Platonic doctrine tended to an extreme Transcendentalism.柏拉图学说往往是一个极端的超验。 Soul and body are distinct orders of reality, and bodily existence involves a kind of violence to the higher part of our composite nature.灵魂与身体是截然不同的命令，从实际出发，身体存在涉及一类的暴力行为向更高的一部分，我们的综合性质。 The body is the "prison", the "tomb", or even, as some later Platonists expressed it, the "hell" of the soul.身体是"监狱" ， "墓" ，甚至如一些人后来platonists表示， "地狱"的灵魂。 In Aristotle this error is avoided.在亚里士多德的这个错误是可以避免的。 His definition of the soul as "the first entelechy of a physical organized body potentially possessing life" emphasizes the closeness of the union of soul and body.他的定义中的灵魂，作为"第一个entelechy的身体组织机构可能藏有生命" ，强调贴近该联盟的灵魂与身体。 The difficulty in his theory is to determine what degree of distinctness or separateness from the matter of the body is to be conceded to the human soul.困难在他的理论是，以确定在何种程度上的区别，或分开件事的机构要让步到人的心灵。 He fully recognizes the spiritual element in thought and describes the "active intellect" (nous poetikos) as "separate and impassible", but the precise relation of this active intellect to the individual mind is a hopelessly obscure question in Aristotle's psychology.他充分认识到精神要素，在思想和描述了"积极的智慧" （理性poetikos ）作为"单独和impassible " ，但确切的关系，这是主动的理智，以个人的心目中是一个没有希望的模糊不清的问题，在亚里士多德的心理学。 (See INTELLECT; MIND.) （见智力;介意） 。
The Stoics taught that all existence is material, and described the soul as a breath pervading the body.该stoics教导说，所有的存在，是物质的，并介绍了灵魂，作为呼气笼罩着身体。 They also called it Divine, a particle of God (apospasma tou theu) -- it was composed of the most refined and ethereal matter.他们还称这是神的，一个粒子的神（ apospasma钭theu ） -这是组成最完善和无形的事。
Eight distinct parts of the soul were recognized by them:八个不同部分的灵魂所公认，他们：
the ruling reason (to hegemonikon)判决理由（ hegemonikon ）
the five senses;五个感官;
the procreative powers.有关生育的权力。
Absolute immortality they denied; relative immortality, terminating with the universal conflagration and destruction of all things, some of them (eg Cleanthes and Chrysippus) admitted in the case of the wise man; others, such as Panaetius and Posidonius, denied even this, arguing that, as the soul began with the body, so it must end with it.绝对不死的，他们否认;相对不死，终止与通用大火，并销毁所有的东西，他们中的一些人（例如克里安提斯和可瑞斯皮优斯）承认，在有关案件的智者;他人，如panaetius和赛东尼奥，甚至否认这一点，争论说，作为灵魂开始与身体，所以必须结束它。
Epicureanism accepted the Atomist theory of Leucippus and Democritus. epicureanism接受atomist理论的流西普斯和德谟克利特。 Soul consists of the finest grained atoms in the universe, finer even than those of wind and heat which they resemble: hence the exquisite fluency of the soul's movements in thought and sensation.灵魂构成的最优秀的晶粒原子在宇宙中，越细，甚至比那些风和热量他们相似的：因此精致流畅灵魂的动向，在思想和感觉。 The soul-atoms themselves, however, could not exercise their functions if they were not kept together by the body.灵魂-原子本身，但是，不能行使自己的职能，如果他们不是关在一起，由该机构。 It is this which gives shape and consistency to the group.正是这种赋予形状和一致性，以该集团的实力。 If this is destroyed, the atoms escape and life is dissolved; if it is injured, part of the soul is lost, but enough may be left to maintain life.如果这是毁灭，原子逃生和生命是解散;如果是受伤，部分的灵魂，是失去了，但不够，可左，以维持生活。 The Lucretian version of Epicureanism distinguishes between animus and anima: the latter only is soul in the biological sense, the former is the higher, directing principle (to hegemonikon) in the Stoic terminology, whose seat is the heart, the centre of the cognitive and emotional life.该lucretian版epicureanism区分敌意和动物：后者不仅是企业的灵魂，在生物学意义上说，前者是更高，指挥原则（ hegemonikon ）在斯多葛术语，其席位是香港的心脏，该中心的认知和情感生活。
THE SOUL IN CHRISTIAN THOUGHT灵魂在基督教思想
Graeco-Roman philosophy made no further progress in the doctrine of the soul in the age immediately preceding the Christian era.希腊罗马哲学，并没有进一步的进展，在理论的灵魂，在时代的前基督教时代。 None of the existing theories had found general acceptance, and in the literature of the period an eclectic spirit nearly akin to Scepticism predominated.任何现有的理论，找到了普遍的认同，并在文学的时期是一个兼收并蓄的精神几乎等同怀疑论为主。 Of the strife and fusion of systems at this time the works of Cicero are the best example.该纷争与融合的系统在这个时候的作品西塞罗是最好的例子。 On the question of the soul he is by turns Platonic and Pythagorean, while he confesses that the Stoic and Epicurean systems have each an attraction for him.关于这个问题的灵魂，他是轮流柏拉图和毕达哥拉斯，尽管他承认，该斯多葛和伊壁鸠鲁系统已分别吸引着他。 Such was the state of the question in the West at the dawn of Christianity.这是国家的问题，在西方国家在即将进入基督教。 In Jewish circles a like uncertainty prevailed.在犹太界类似的不确定性占了上风。 The Sadducees were Materialists, denying immortality and all spiritual existence.该撒都该人被唯物主义者，否认不死，一切精神的存在。 The Pharisees maintained these doctrines, adding belief in pre-existence and transmigration.法利保持着这些教义，加上信仰预先存在和轮回。 The psychology of the Rabbins is founded on the Sacred Books, particularly the account of the creation of man in Genesis.心理学的rabbins是建基于神圣的书籍，尤其是该帐户的开设男子成因。 Three terms are used for the soul: nephesh, nuah, and neshamah; the first was taken to refer to the animal and vegetative nature, the second to the ethical principle, the third to the purely spiritual intelligence.三种形式是用灵魂： nephesh ， nuah ， neshamah ;首次被带到是指以动物和营养性，第二个是道德原则，第三，以纯粹的精神智慧。 At all events, it is evident that the Old Testament throughout either asserts or implies the distinct reality of the soul.在所有比赛中，显而易见的是旧约整个要么断言或暗示鲜明的现实的灵魂。 An important contribution to later Jewish thought was the infusion of Platonism into it by Philo of Alexandria.一个重要贡献后，犹太人的思想是输液的柏拉图到它的斐洛亚历山大。 He taught the immediately Divine origin of the soul, its pre-existence and transmigration; he contrasts the pneuma, or spiritual essence, with the soul proper, the source of vital phenomena, whose seat is the blood; finally he revived the old Platonic Dualism, attributing the origin of sin and evil to the union of spirit with matter.他教导立即神圣起源的灵魂，其预先存在和轮回，他对比了pneuma ，还是精神实质，正确与适当的灵魂，从源头上的重要现象，其安全座椅是血，最后他又恢复了老柏拉图式二元论，归因于起源的罪过与邪恶的，以该联盟的精神与物质的。
It was Christianity that, after many centuries of struggle, applied the final criticisms to the various psychologies of antiquity, and brought their scattered elements of truth to full focus.这是基督教，经过许多世纪的奋斗，适用于最后的批评，以各种心态的古物，并带来了他们的稀散元素的真相，以充分关注的焦点。 The tendency of Christ's teaching was to centre all interest in the spiritual side of man's nature; the salvation or loss of the soul is the great issue of existence.倾向基督教的教学是中心，所有感兴趣，在精神方面是人的本性;救赎或丧失灵魂，是这一重大问题的存在。 The Gospel language is popular, not technical.福音的语言是受欢迎的，而不是技术。 Psyche and pneuma are used indifferently either for the principle of natural life or for spirit in the strict sense.赛琪和pneuma用冷漠要么为原则，自然生命或为精神，在严格意义上的。 Body and soul are recognized as a dualism and their values contrasted: "Fear ye not them that kill the body . . . but rather fear him that can destroy both soul and body in hell."身体与灵魂，是公认的作为一个二元论和价值观念相对照： "怕你们不说，他们杀死身体… … 。而是怕他，它可以摧毁两个灵魂与身体在地狱里" 。 In St. Paul we find a more technical phraseology employed with great consistency.在圣保罗，我们发现一个比较技术性的用语，聘请怀着极大的一致性。 Psyche is now appropriated to the purely natural life; pneuma to the life of supernatural religion, the principle of which is the Holy Spirit, dwelling and operating in the heart.赛琪现在拨纯粹的自然生命; pneuma到生命的超自然的宗教，其中主要的是圣灵，住所和经营中的核心。 The opposition of flesh and spirit is accentuated afresh (Romans 1:18, etc.).在野的肉体和精神，是加快重新（罗马书1:18 ，等等） 。 This Pauline system, presented to a world already prepossessed in favour of a quasi-Platonic Dualism, occasioned one of the earliest widespread forms of error among Christian writers -- the doctrine of the Trichotomy.这宝莲系统，提交给一个世界已经prepossessed赞成一个准柏拉图式二元论，的情况，其中最早的普遍形式的误差之间的基督教作家-中庸的三分法。 According to this, man, perfect man (teleios) consists of three parts: body, soul, spirit (soma, psyche, pneuma).根据这个，满，一个完美的男人（ teleios ）包括三个部分：身体，灵魂，精神（体，赛琪， pneuma ） 。 Body and soul come by natural generation; spirit is given to the regenerate Christian alone.身体与灵魂来受自然生成;精神，是考虑到再生基督徒。 Thus, the "newness of life", of which St. Paul speaks, was conceived by some as a superadded entity, a kind of oversoul sublimating the "natural man" into a higher species.因此， "新奇性生活" ，其中圣保禄说，在构思一些作为superadded实体，是一种oversoul升华"自然人"变成更高的物种。 This doctrine was variously distorted in the different Gnostic systems.这种学说被不同程度扭曲，在不同的诺斯替系统。 The Gnostics divided man into three classes:该gnostics分为男子分为三个档次：
pneumatici or spiritual, pneumatici或精神的，
psychici or animal, psychici或动物，
choici or earthy. choici或土状。
To each class they ascribed a different origin and destiny.每个阶层，他们属于不同的起源和命运。 The spiritual were of the seed of Achemoth, and were destined to return in time whence they had sprung -- namely, into the pleroma.精神人的种子achemoth ，并注定要返回的时间何时，他们已异军突起-即进入p leroma。 Even in this life they are exempted from the possibility of a fall from their high calling; they therefore stand in no need of good works, and have nothing to fear from the contaminations of the world and the flesh.即使在这样的生活中，他们则免受可能下跌，从自己的高要求;因此，他们的立场，在任何需要的优秀作品，并没有什么可怕，从污染物的世界和肉体。 This class consists of course of the Gnostics themselves.这个阶层当然的gnostics自己。 The psychici are in a lower position: they have capacities for spiritual life which they must cultivate by good works.该psychici正处于一个较低的位置是：他们有能力为精神生活，他们必须培养良好的工程。 They stand in a middle place, and may either rise to the spiritual or sink to the hylic level.他们站在中间发生，而且可导致精神或沉沦至hylic水平。 In this category stands the Christian Church at large.在这个类别中的停机位基督教教会在逃。 Lastly, the earthy souls are a mere material emanation, destined to perish: the matter of which they are composed being incapable of salvation (me gar einai ten hylen dektiken soterias).最后，土状心灵是一个单纯的物质泄漏，注定要灭亡：此事的，他们都用正无力救赎（我明嘉einai 10许伦dektiken soterias ） 。 This class contains the multitudes of the merely natural man.这个类包含了众多的只是自然的人。
Two features claim attention in this the earliest essay towards a complete anthropology within the Christian Church:两个特征，要求注意在这方面最早的散文走向一个完整的人类学与基督教堂：
an extreme spirituality is attributed to "the perfect";一个极端的灵性，是归因于"完美" ;
immortality is conditional for the second class of souls, not an intrinsic attribute of all souls.不死的，是有条件的为第二级的灵魂，而不是一个内在的本质属性，所有的灵魂。
It is probable that originally the terms pneumatici, psychici, and choici denoted at first elements which were observed to exist in all souls, and that it was only by an afterthought that they were employed, according to the respective predominance of these elements in different cases, to represent supposed real classes of men.它将很可能原本条款pneumatici ， psychici ， choici包含在第一要素，其中观察到存在于所有心灵，那只是由一个事后说，他们雇用的，根据各自的优势，这些要素在不同的案件，以代表假定真正班级的男人。 The doctrine of the four temperaments and the Stoic ideal of the Wise Man afford a parallel for the personification of abstract qualities.该学说的四个音律和斯多葛理想的智者不起一个平行为人格化抽象的素质。 The true genius of Christianity, expressed by the Fathers of the early centuries, rejected Gnosticism.真正的天才是基督教，所表达的父亲早日几百年后，拒绝灵知。 The ascription to a creature of an absolutely spiritual nature, and the claim to endless existence asserted as a strictly de jure privilege in the case of the "perfect", seemed to them an encroachment on the incommunicable attributes of God.归属到一个造物的，是绝对的精神本质，并要求永无休止的存在断言，作为一个严格的法律上的特权，在该案件的"完美" ，似乎是他们侵犯了incommunicable属性的上帝。 The theory of Emanation too was seen to be a derogation from the dignity of the Divine nature For this reason, St. Justin, supposing that the doctrine of natural immortality logically implies eternal existence, rejects it, making this attribute (like Plato in the "Timaeus") dependent on the free will of God; at the same time he plainly asserts the de facto immortality of every human soul.理论射也被视为是一个减损尊严的神圣性，为此，圣贾斯汀，假设该学说的自然不朽逻辑意味着永恒的存在，否定它，使这一属性（如柏拉图在"提玛友斯" ） ，依赖于自由意志的上帝;在同一时间，他赤裸裸地断言既成事实不死每个人的灵魂。 The doctrine of conservation, as the necessary complement of creation, was not yet elaborated.该学说的保护，作为必要补充的创作，还没有详细阐述。 Even in Scholastic philosophy, which asserts natural immortality, the abstract possibility of annihilation through an act of God's absolute power is also admitted.即使在学术上的理念，断言自然不死，抽象的可能性湮没透过上帝的旨意的，绝对的权力也承认。 Similarly, Tatian denies the simplicity of the soul, claiming that absolute simplicity belongs to God alone.同样， tatian否认单纯的灵魂，并声称绝对简单，天主的归天主。 All other beings, he held, are composed of matter and spirit.所有其他的人，他召开，是组成物质的和精神。 Here again it would be rash to urge a charge of Materialism.在这里，再次将皮疹，以敦促政府负责唯物论。 Many of these writers failed to distinguish between corporeity in strict essence and corporeity as a necessary or natural concomitant.许多这些作家未能区别体质，在严格的本质和体质作为必要的或自然相伴。 Thus the soul may itself be incorporeal and yet require a body as a condition of its existence.因此灵魂本身可能已被无形的，但需要一个机构，作为一个条件，它的存在。 In this sense St. Irenæus attributes a certain "corporeal character" to the soul; he represents it as possessing the form of its body, as water possesses the form of its containing vessel.从这个意义上讲，圣irenæus属性一定的"体"字，以灵魂，他代表着它拥有的形式，它的身体，因为水具有形式的，其含有的船只。 At the same time, he teaches fairly explicitly the incorporeal nature of the soul.在同一时间内，他教导相当明确无形资产性质的灵魂。 He also sometimes uses what seems to be the language of the Trichotomists, as when he says that in the Resurrection men shall have each their own body, soul, and spirit.他有时也用什么，似乎是语言的trichotomists ，因为当他说，在复活的男子应有每个自己的身体，灵魂和精神。 But such an interpretation is impossible in view of his whole position in regard to the Gnostic controversy.但这种解释是不可能的，鉴于他的整个立场就以诺斯替争议。 The dubious language of these writers can only be understood in relation to the system they were opposing.可疑的语言，这些作家只能被理解有关制度，他们反对的。 By assigning a literal divinity to a certain small aristocracy of souls, Gnosticism set aside the doctrine of Creation and the whole Christian idea of God's relation to man.分配到一个字面上的神性，以某一个小贵族的心灵，灵知预留主义创作和整个基督教的上帝观的关系，以男子。 On the other side, by its extreme dualism of matter and spirit, and its denial to matter (ie the flesh) of all capacity for spiritual influences, it involved the rejection of cardinal doctrines like the Resurrection of the Body and even of the Incarnation itself in any proper sense.在另一边，它的极端二元论事的精神，其否认此事（即肉）的所有能力，为精神的影响，它涉及到拒绝枢机学说像复活的身体，甚至对自己的化身在任何适当的意义。 The orthodox teacher had to emphasize:东正教老师强调：
the soul's distinction from God and subjection to Him;灵魂的区别，从上帝和服从他;
its affinities with matter.其亲和与此事。
The two converse truths -- those of the soul's affinity with the Divine nature and its radical distinction from matter, were apt to be obscured in comparison.两个逆向真理-那些灵魂的亲和与神圣的性质，其激进的区别，容易被遮蔽，在比较的。 It was only afterwards and very gradually, with the development of the doctrine of grace, with the fuller recognition of the supernatural order as such, and the realization of the Person and Office of the Holy Spirit, that the various errors connected with the pneuma ceased to be a stumbling-block to Christian psychology.这是在事后才和非常渐渐地，而与发展的学说的宽限期，以更充分地认识到超自然秩序等，并实现个人和办公室的圣灵，即各种错误与pneuma停止是一个绊脚石，以基督徒的心理。 Indeed, similar errors have accompanied almost every subsequent form of heterodox Illuminism and Mysticism.事实上，类似的失误，伴随着几乎每一个后来的形式非正统illuminism和神秘主义。
Tertullian's treatise "De Anima" has been called the first Christian classic on psychology proper.戴尔都良的论文"德动物"的论断，已召开了第一次基督教经典心理学正确的。 The author aims to show the failure of all philosophies to elucidate the nature of the soul, and argues eloquently that Christ alone can teach mankind the truth on such subjects.作者旨在表明失败，所有的哲学阐释性的灵魂，并辩称，雄辩地说，基督仅可以教导人类真相等科目。 His own doctrine, however, is simply the refined Materialism of the Stoics, supported by arguments from medicine and physiology and by ingenious interpretations of Scripture, in which the unavoidable materialism of language is made to establish a metaphysical Materialism.他自己的学说，但是，仅仅是成品唯物论的stoics ，支持论据，从医学和生理学，并通过巧妙的解释经文，其中不可避免的唯物主义的语言，是建立一个形而上学唯物主义。 Tertullian is the founder of the theory of Traducianism, which derives the rational soul ex traduce, ie by procreation from the soul of the parent.戴尔都良是创始人的理论traducianism ，它源于理性的灵魂，当然中伤，即生育行为，从灵魂的母公司。 For Tertullian this was a necessary consequence of Materialism.对于戴尔都良这是一个必然后果唯物论。 Later writers found in the doctrine a convenient explanation of the transmission of original sin.后来，作家发现，在学说一个方便的解释传输的原罪。 St. Jerome says that in his day it was the common theory in the West.圣杰罗姆说，在他那一天，这是共同的理论，在西部地区。 Theologians have long abandoned it, however, in favour of Creationism, as it seems to compromise the spirituality of the soul.神学家都早已放弃了它，但是，在赞成的神创论，因为它似乎妥协了灵性的灵魂。 Origen taught the pre-existence of the soul.教渊源前存在的灵魂。 Terrestrial life is a punishment and a remedy for prenatal sin.陆地生活是一种惩罚和补救措施，产前单。 "Soul" is properly degraded spirit: flesh is a condition of alienation and bondage (cf. Comment. ad Romans 1:18). "灵魂"的关系，是退化的精神：血肉，是一个条件的异化和奴役下（参见评论。专案罗马书1:18 ） 。 Spirit, however, finite spirit, can exist only in a body, albeit of a glorious and ethereal nature.精神，然而，有限的精神，才能存在，只有在一个机构，尽管一项光荣而无形的性质。 Neo-Platonism, which through St. Augustine contributed so much to spiritual philosophy, belongs to this period.新柏拉图主义，它通过圣奥古斯丁贡献了这么多的精神哲学，是属于这个阶段。 Like Gnosticism, it uses emanations.像灵知，它使用emanations 。 The primeval and eternal One begets by emanation nous (intelligence); and from nous in turn springs psyche (soul), which is the image of nous, but distinct from it.原始与永恒一出由泄漏理性（情报） ，以及从理性反过来泉水心灵（灵魂） ，这是形象的理性，但有别于它。 Matter is a still later emanation.无论是一个还是后来释放。 Soul has relations to both ends of the scale of reality, and its perfection lies in turning towards the Divine Unity from which it came.灵魂有关系，以两端的规模，从实际出发，它的完善在于转向神圣统一由它来了。 In everything, the neo-Platonist recognized the absolute primacy of the soul with respect to the body.一切新platonist认识到绝对至高无上的灵魂与敬意，向身体。 Thus, the mind is always active, even in sense -- perception -- it is only the body that is passively affected by external stimuli.因此，心是永远活跃，即使在意识-认知-这仅仅是个机构，是被动地受外来的刺激。 Similarly Plotinus prefers to say that the body is in the soul rather than vice versa: and he seems to have been the first to conceive the peculiar manner of the soul's location as an undivided and universal presence pervading the organism (tota in toto et tota in singulis partibus).同样普罗提诺宁愿说，这具尸体是在灵魂而非反之亦然：他似乎已被首先要特有的方式与灵魂的位置，作为一项都守不住和普遍笼罩着在场的生物体（ tota全文等，在tota singulis partibus ） 。 It is impossible to give more than a very brief notice of the psychology of St. Augustine.这是不可能给予多于一个非常简短的通知，对心理学的圣奥古斯丁。 His contributions to every branch of the science were immense; the senses, the emotions, imagination, memory, the will, and the intellect -- he explored them all, and there is scarcely any subsequent development of importance that he did not forestall.他的贡献，每一个分支科学是巨大的;感官，情感，想象，记忆，意志和智力-他探讨他们所有，并有几乎任何后来的发展中的重要性，他不阻绝。 He is the founder of the introspective method.他是创办人的内省方法。 Noverim Te, noverim me was an intellectual no less than a devotional aspiration with him. noverim特noverim我是一个知识分子，没有不到一个灵修的诉求与他的。 The following are perhaps the chief points for our present purpose:以下是可能的行政点，我们现在的目的：
he opposes body and soul on the ground of the irreducible distinction of thought and extension (cf. DESCARTES).他反对身体与灵魂在地面上的不可区分的思想和延期（参见笛卡儿） 。 St. Augustine, however, lays more stress on the volitional activities than did the French Idealists.圣奥古斯丁，不过，更多地强调了对意志活动，而不是有没有法语理想主义者。 As against the Manichæans he always asserts the worth and dignity of the body.对manichæans他始终坚称价值和尊严的身体。 Like Aristotle he makes the soul the final cause of the body.像亚里士多德，他的灵魂最后的事业体。 As God is the Good or Summum Bonum of the soul, so is the soul the good of the body.因为上帝是好还是summum bonum的灵魂，所以是灵魂良好的身体。 The origin of the soul is perhaps beyond our ken.起源的灵魂，也许是我们所能垦。 He never definitely decided between Traducianism and Creationism.他从来没有绝对决定关系traducianism和神创论。
As regards spirituality, he is everywhere most explicit, but it is interesting as an indication of the futile subtleties current at the time to find him warning a friend against the controversy on the corporeality of the soul, seeing that the term "corpus" was used in so many different senses.至于灵性，他是无处不在，最明确的，但有趣的是，为表示徒劳无益的微妙关系，在当前的时间找到他警告一个朋友对争议就corporeality的灵魂，看到而言， "语料库" ，是用来在这么多不同的含义。 "Corpus, non caro" is his own description of the angelic body. "语料库，非卡罗" ，是他自己的描述，天使的身体。
Medieval psychology prior to the Aristotelean revival was affected by neo-Platonism, Augustinianism, and mystical influences derived from the works of pseudo-Dionysius.中世纪心理学事先向aristotelean复兴，是受新柏拉图主义，奥古斯丁主义，而神秘的影响，来自于工程的伪狄奥尼修斯。 This fusion produced sometimes, notably in Scotus Eriugena, a pantheistic theory of the soul.这种融合产生的，有时，特别是在scotus eriugena ， pantheistic理论的灵魂。 All individual existence is but the development of the Divine life, in which all things are destined to be resumed.所有个体存在，不过是发展的神圣生命，其中所有的东西，都是注定要被收回。 The Arabian commentators, Averroes and Avicenna, had interpreted Aristotle's psychology in a pantheistic sense.阿拉伯评论家， averroes和阿维森纳，诠释了亚里士多德的心理学在pantheistic常识。 St. Thomas, with the rest of the Schoolmen, amends this portion of the Aristotelean tradition, accepting the rest with no important modifications.圣托马斯，其余的schoolmen ，修订这部分人的aristotelean传统，接受，其余无重要修改。 St. Thomas's doctrine is briefly as follows:圣托马斯的学说是简略如下：
the rational soul, which is one with the sensitive and vegetative principle, is the form of the body.理性的灵魂，这是一个敏感而植物人的原则，是形式的身体。 This was defined as of faith by the Council of Vienne of 1311;这一被界定为信仰的，由理事会维埃纳省的1311年;
the soul is a substance, but an incomplete substance, ie it has a natural aptitude and exigency for existence in the body, in conjunction with which it makes up the substantial unity of human nature;灵魂是一种物质，而是一个完整的实质，即它有一个天然的才智和紧急求生存在人体中，要结合，它弥补了大量的团结，人的本性;
though connaturally related to the body, it is itself absolutely simple, ie of an unextended and spiritual nature.虽然connaturally涉及到机构，它本身就是绝对简单，即一个未扩展和精神性质。 It is not wholly immersed in matter, its higher operations being intrinsically independent of the organism; the rational soul is produced by special creation at the moment when the organism is sufficiently developed to receive it.它是不是完全沉浸在物质，其较高的业务内在的独立的有机体;理性的灵魂，是由特殊的创作上的时候，有机体是不够发达接收它。 In the first stage of embryonic development, the vital principle has merely vegetative powers; then a sensitive soul comes into being, educed from the evolving potencies of the organism -- later yet, this is replaced by the perfect rational soul, which is essentially immaterial and so postulates a special creative act.在第一阶段的胚胎发育，重要原则，只是植物人权力，然后一个敏感的灵魂生效后， educed从不断变化的潜在的生物体-后来不过，这所取代，完美理性的灵魂，本质上也就是无关紧要所以假设的一个特别的创意行为。 Many modern theologians have abandoned this last point of St. Thomas's teaching, and maintain that a fully rational soul is infused into the embryo at the first moment of its existence.许多现代神学家已经放弃了这最后一点的圣托马斯对他的教诲，保持一个充分理性的灵魂，是贯穿到胚胎在第一时刻，它的存在。
THE SOUL IN MODERN THOUGHT灵魂，在现代思想
Modern speculations respecting the soul have taken two main directions, Idealism and Materialism.现代揣测尊重灵魂已采取两个主要方向，唯心论和唯物论。 Agnosticism need not be reckoned as a third and distinct answer to the problem, since, as a matter of fact, all actual agnosticisms have an easily recognized bias towards one or other of the two solutions aforesaid.不可知论不必算是第三和独特的问题的答案，因为，作为一个问题，事实上，所有实际agnosticisms有一个很容易认出偏向一方或另一方的两个解决方案，上述。 Both Idealism and Materialism in present-day philosophy merge into Monism, which is probably the most influential system outside the Catholic Church.既唯心论和唯物论在当代哲学融入一元论，这也许是最有影响力的制度外，天主教会。
History历史
Descartes conceived the soul as essentially thinking (ie conscious) substance, and body as essentially extended substance.笛卡儿构思的灵魂，作为实质上的思维（即自觉）的物质，与身体基本上延长物质。 The two are thus simply disparate realities, with no vital connection between them.二者因而根本不相干的现实，没有切身的关系。 This is significantly marked by his theory of the soul's location in the body.这是显着标志是他的理论的灵魂的位置在体内。 Unlike the Scholastics he confines it to a single point -- the pineal gland -- from which it is supposed to control the various organs and muscles through the medium of the "animal spirits", a kind of fluid circulating through the body.不像scholastics他局限，它是一个奇点-松果体-由它来控制各器官和肌肉通过新闻媒介的"动物精神"，一种流体循环通过人体。 Thus, to say the least, the soul's biological functions are made very remote and indirect, and were in fact later on reduced almost to a nullity: the lower life was violently severed from the higher, and regarded as a simple mechanism.因此，至少可以说，抓住了灵魂的生物学功能是很遥远和间接的，而事实上这些都是后来减少到几乎无效：寿命较低，是粗暴地切断了从较高，而被视为一种简单的机制。 In the Cartesian theory animals are mere automata.在笛卡尔理论的动物，仅仅是自动机。 It is only by the Divine assistance that action between soul and body is possible.这是只有神的援助行动之间的灵魂与身体是有可能的。 The Occasionalists went further, denying all interaction whatever, and making the correspondence of the two sets of facts a pure result of the action of God.该occasionalists更进一步，否认所有互动的，也是使函授的两套事实，一个纯粹因这次行动的上帝。 The Leibnizian theory of Pre-established Harmony similarly refuses to admit any inter-causal relation.该leibnizian理论预先确定的和谐同样拒绝承认任何跨因果关系。 The superior monad (soul) and the aggregate of inferior monads which go to make up the body are like two clocks constructed with perfect art so as always to agree.优越的Monad （灵魂）和总结劣质Monad的哪去弥补身体就像是两个时钟构造与完美的艺术，使一向以同意。 They register alike, but independently: they are still two clocks, not one.他们注册一样，但实行独立：他们仍然是两个时钟，一个也没有。 This awkward Dualism was entirely got rid of by Spinoza.这种尴尬的二元论，是完全摆脱了由斯宾诺莎。 For him there is but one, infinite substance, of which thought and extension are only attributes.他只能有一个，有无限的物质，其中的思路和扩建，只是属性。 Thought comprehends extension, and by that very fact shows that it is at root one with that which it comprehends.思想comprehends延伸，由该事实表明，它是治本的一个与它comprehends 。 The alleged irreducible distinction is transcended: soul and body are neither of them substances, but each is a property of the one substance.据称不可区分的，是超越：灵魂与身体既不是他们的物质，但他们每一个都是财产的一种物质。 Each in its sphere is the counterpart of the other.每一个在其职权范围内是对应的另一方。 This is the meaning of the definition, "Soul is the Idea of Body".这是定义的含义， "灵魂是理念的机构" 。 Soul is the counterpart within the sphere of the attribute of thought of that particular mode of the attribute of extension which we call the body.灵魂，是内部的对口领域的属性的思路，特别模式的本质属性，推广，我们称之为人体。 Such was the fate of Cartesianism.这是命运的cartesianism 。
English Idealism had a different course.英语唯心主义了一条不同的路线。 Berkeley had begun by denying the existence of material substance, which he reduced merely to a series of impressions in the sentient mind.大学柏克莱分校已开始由否认存在材料的实质内容，而他只是减少了一连串的印象中感觉的心。 Mind is the only substance.心是唯一的物质。 Hume finished the argument by dissolving mind itself into its phenomena, a loose collection of "impressions and ideas".休谟成品论点解散牢记自己纳入其现象，一个松散的集"的印象和想法" 。 The Sensist school (Condillac etc.) and the Associationists (Hartley, the Mills, and Bain) continued in similar fashion to regard the mind as constituted by its phenomena or "states", and the growth of modern positive psychology has tended to encourage this attitude.该sensist学校（孔狄亚克等） ，以及associationists （哈特利，米尔斯和贝恩）继续以类似的方式把心目中所构成，其现象或"国家" ，而且增长的现代积极心理学已倾向于鼓励这态度。 But to rest in Phenomenalism as a theory is impossible, as its ablest advocates themselves have seen.但休息，在phenomenalism作为一个理论是不可能的，因为它的ablest主张自己看到的。 Thus JS Mill, while describing the mind as merely "a series [ie of conscious phenomena] aware of itself as a series", is forced to admit that such a conception involves an unresolved paradox.因此js轧机，而描绘心目中只是"一连串[即有意识的现象]知道自己是一个系列" ，是被迫承认，这种构想涉及到一个悬而未决的矛盾现象。 Again, W. James's assertion that "the passing thought is itself the Thinker", which "appropriates" all past thoughts in the "stream of consciousness", simply blinks the question.再次，小詹姆斯奇摩断言： "通过思想本身就是思想家" ， "合适"所有过去的思考，在"意识流" ，简单地光闪动问题。 For surely there is something which in its turn "appropriates" the passing thought itself and the entire stream of past and future thoughts as well, viz.为肯定有一些东西，在其转"合适"的及格以为自己和整个流的过去和未来的思考，以及入境，即。 the self-conscious, self-asserting "I" the substantial ultimate of our mental life.自觉，自律，断言"我"的大幅最终我们的心理生活。 To be in this sense "monarch of all it surveys" in introspective observation and reflective self-consciousness, to appropriate without itself being appropriated by anything else, to be the genuine owner of a certain limited section of reality (the stream of consciousness), this is to be a free and sovereign (though finite) personality, a self-conscious, spiritual substance in the language of Catholic metaphysics.要在这个意义上的"君主的一切调查"内省的观察和反思，自我意识，以适当而本身又被核拨的一切，成为真正的主人的某一段有限的现实（意识流意识） ，这将是一次自由和主权（尽管有限）的个性，自我意识，精神实质，在语言的天主教形而上学。
Criticism批评
The foregoing discussion partly anticipates our criticism of Materialism.前述讨论中，部分预期，我们的批评唯物论。 The father of modern Materialism is Hobbes, who accepted the theory of Epicurus, and reduced all spirits either to phantoms of the imagination or to matter in a highly rarefied state.父亲的现代唯物主义是霍布斯，他们接受的理论，其半径，并减少所有烈酒要么幻影的想象或以此事在高度稀薄状态。 This theory need not detain us here.这一理论不必扣留我们这里。 Later Materialism has three main sources:后来唯物主义有三个主要来源：
Newtonian physics, which taught men to regard matter, not as inert and passive, but as instinct with force.牛顿物理学，教官兵方面问题，而不是作为惰性和被动的，但作为一种本能与力量。 Why should not life and consciousness be among its unexplored potencies?为什么不应该生活和意识当中，其探索的效力吗？ (Priestley, Tyndall, etc.) Tyndall himself provides the answer admitting that the chasm that separates psychical facts from material phenomena is "intellectually impassable". （ priestley ，廷德尔等） ，廷德尔自己提供了答案承认那鸿沟分隔心理事实，从物质现象是"智力不可逾越的" 。 Writers, therefore, who make thought a mere "secretion of the brain" or a "phosphorescence" of its substance (Vogt, Moleschott) may be simply ignored.作家，因此，他们提出，认为是单纯的"分泌的脑" ，或曰"磷光" ，其实质（福格特，莫勒斯霍特） ，可不予理会。 In reply to the more serious Materialism, spiritualist philosophers need only re-assert the admissions of the Materialists themselves, that there is an impassable chasm between the two classes of facts.在回答较为严重的唯物论， spiritualist哲学家只需要重新断言招生办的唯物主义者，是有一道不可逾越的鸿沟，两国之间的阶级事实。
Psychophysics, it is alleged, shows the most minute dependence of mind-functions upon brain-states.心理物理学，据称，显示了最微小的依赖心功能后，脑国。 The two orders of facts are therefore perfectly continuous, and, though they may be superficially different yet they must be after all radically one.这两项命令的事实，因此完全可以连续，而且，尽管他们可能表面上的不同，但他们必须经过彻底的一个。 Mental phenomena may be styled an epiphenomenon or byproduct of material force (Huxley).心理现象可能是风格的一种伴随现象或副产品的物质力量（赫胥黎） 。 The answer is the same as before.答案是一样的。 There is no analogy for an epiphenomenon being separated by an "impassable chasm" from the causal series to which it belongs.有没有比喻为一种伴随现象被隔开的一个"不可逾越的鸿沟" ，从因果系列，以它所属的。 The term is, in fact, a mere verbal subterfuge.任期是，在事实上，仅仅是口头上的说辞。 The only sound principle in such arguments is the principle that essential or "impassable" distinctions in the effect can be explained only by similar distinctions in the cause.唯一稳妥的原则，在这种论调的是原则，即关键或"不可逾越"的区别，在效果可以解释为只有通过类似的区别，在事业。 This is the principle on which Dualism as we have explained it, rests.这是原则上的两重性，因为我们已经解释过，落在。 Merely to find relations, however close, between mental and physiological facts does not advance us an inch towards transcending this Dualism.只是为了找关系，但密切，心理和生理的事实并不促进美一寸走向超越这个二元对立。 It only enriches and fills out our concept of it.它不仅丰富和填补了我们的观念。 The mutual compenetration of soul and body in their activities is just what Catholic philosophy (anticipating positive science) had taught for centuries.相互compenetration的灵魂与身体，在他们的活动正是天主教哲学（期待实证科学）任教数百年。 Man is two and one, a divisible but a vital unity.男子两年一，由可分割的，但一个重要的团结。
Evolutionism endeavours to explain the origin of the soul from merely material forces.进化论的努力，以解释的起源灵魂，从单纯的物质力量。 Spirit is not the basis and principle; rather it is the ultimate efflorescence of the Cosmos.精神是没有依据和原则，而这是最终开花的宇宙。 If we ask then "what was the original basis out of which spirit and all things arose?"如果我们问，那便是"什么是在原有的基础上指出，其中的精神和一切事物产生的" ？ we are told it was the Unknowable (Spencer).有人告诉我们，这是不可知（斯宾塞） 。 This system must be treated as Materialistic Monism.这个制度必须被当作唯物主义一元论。 The answer to it is that, as the outcome of the Unknowable has a spiritual character, the Unknowable itself (assuming its reality) must be spiritual.答案，那就是，作为结果的不可知性有一个精神品格，不可知本身（假定其现实） ，必须是精神的。
As regards monistic systems generally, it belongs rather to cosmology to discuss them.至于monistic系统整体，它属于而是以宇宙论，以讨论这些问题。 We take our stand on the consciousness of individual personality, which consciousness is a distinct deliverance of our very highest faculties, growing more and more explicit with the strengthening of our moral and intellectual being.我们以我们的立场，对意识的独特个性，这也是一个鲜明的解脱，我们十分最高院系，越来越清晰，与加强我们的道德和智慧。 This consciousness is emphatic, as against the figments of a fallaciously abstract reason, in asserting the self-subsistence (and at the same time the finitude) of our being, ie it declares that we are independent inasmuch as we are truly persons or selves, not mere attributes or adjectives, while at the same time, by exhibiting our manifold limitations, it directs us to a higher Cause on which our being depends.这种意识是肯定的，正如对figments一个fallaciously抽象，因此，在主张自我生存（以及在同一时间，有限性） ，我们正，即它宣称，我们是独立的，因为我们是真正的人或守土有责，不是单纯的属性或形容词，而在同一时间，通过参展我们多方面的局限性，它引导我们到一个更高的事业上，我们正有赖于此。
Such is the Catholic doctrine on the nature, unity, substantiality, spirituality, and origin of the soul.这是天主教教义上的性质，团结协作，重实体，灵性，和原产地的灵魂。 It is the only system consistent with Christian faith, and, we may add, morals, for both Materialism and Monism logically cut away the foundations of these.这是唯一的制度与基督教信仰，而且，我们有可能会增加，有道德，有文化，无论唯物论和一元论在逻辑上切离地基的了。 The foregoing historical sketch will have served also to show another advantage it possesses -- namely, that it is by far the most comprehensive, and at the same time discriminating, syntheseis of whatever is best in rival systems.前述的历史素描还是有，也表现出另一种优势，它拥有-这就是，它是目前为止最全面的，并在同一时间内判别， s yntheseis什么是最好的对手。 It recognizes the physical conditions of the soul's activity with the Materialist, and its spiritual aspect with the Idealist, while with the Monist it insists on the vital unity of human life.它承认物质条件的灵魂的行为，具有唯物主义精神，其精神方面与唯心主义的，而与monist它要坚持的重要团结的人的生命。 It enshrines the principles of ancient speculation, and is ready to receive and assimilate the fruits of modern research.它体现了原则的古代投机活动，并愿意接受和吸收水果的现代研究。
Publication information Written by Michael Maher & Joseph Bolland.出版信息该书由Michael马希尔＆约瑟夫bolland 。 Transcribed by Tomas Hancil and Joseph P. Thomas.转录由Tomas汉奇尔和Joseph页托马斯。 The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XIV.天主教百科全书，体积十四。