Philosophical Terms哲学术语

General Information 一般资料

(Editor's Note: （编者的话：
This is a capsule presentation of many philosophical positions.这是一个胶囊陈述许多哲学立场。 Most of these positions are closely related to Christianity or are responses to it.大多数的这些立场是密切相关的基督教或对策。 In the cases that have Christian or other religious significance, BELIEVE includes thorough presentations of these subjects.)在这些案件中有基督教或其他宗教意义，相信包括彻底的方式介绍这些科目） 。

BELIEVE 相信
Religious 宗教
Information 资讯
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Our List of 1,000 Religious Subjects 我们所列出的1000名宗教科目
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absolutism 专制主义
The doctrine that there is one explanation of all reality-the absolute-that is unchanging and objectively true.该学说认为，有一个解释一切现实的绝对-这是不变的，客观真实。 Absolutists (such as GWF Hegel) hold that this absolute, such as God or mind, is eternal and that in it all seeming differences are reconciled. absolutists （如gwf黑格尔）认为，这是绝对的，如上帝或心，是永恒的，并表示，在这一切看似差异是调和。
agnosticism 不可知论
The belief that it is impossible to know whether God exists, or to have any other theological knowledge.我们认为它是不可能知道上帝是否存在，或有任何其他神学知识。 English thinkers TH Huxley (1825-95) and Bertrand Russell were influential agnostics.英语思想家次赫胥黎（ 1825至1895年）和罗素都是有影响力的不可知论者。
altruism 利他
The ethical theory that morality consists of concern for and the active promotion of the interests of others.道德理论，道德构成的关心和积极推动其他国家的利益。 Altruists strongly disagree with the doctrine of egoism, which states that individuals act only in their own self-interest.利他主义强烈反对中庸之道，享乐主义，极端个人主义，其中指出，个人的行为只有在自身利益。
Aristotelianism 亚里士多德
The thinking and writings of Aristotle, influential until the fall of Rome, when all but his writings on logic were lost to Christian civilization in Europe.思想和著作的亚里士多德，有影响力，直到秋天罗马，当所有，但他的著作逻辑丢失，以基督教文明在欧洲。 However, his works were preserved in Syrian and Arabic cultures and were revived at the end of the twelfth century.不过，他的作品被保存在叙利亚和阿拉伯文化，并恢复在去年底的12世纪。
asceticism 禁欲主义
The view that attention to the body's needs is evil, an obstacle to moral and spiritual development, and displeasing to God.认为注意身体的需要，是邪恶的，阻碍了道德和精神方面的发展，和不快上帝。 According to this view, humans are urged to withdraw into an inner spiritual world to reach the good life.根据这种观点，人类是敦促撤回到内在心灵世界，以达到创造美好的生活。
atheism 无神论
The rejection of the belief in God.拒绝信仰上帝。 Some atheists have held that there is nothing in the world that requires a God in order to be explained.一些无神论者也认为，没有什么在世界上需要一个上帝，以加以解释。 Atheism is not the same as agnosticism, which holds that we can have knowledge neither of the existence nor of the nonexistence of God.无神论是不一样的不可知论，认为我们可以有知识都不存在，也不是不存在性的上帝。
British idealism (neo-Hegelianism) 英国唯心主义（新黑格尔）
The philosophy of Hegel as revived in England and Scotland in the mid-nineteenth century.哲学的黑格尔作为恢复在英格兰和苏格兰，在19世纪中叶。 The most prominent members of this school were TH Green (1836-82), Bernard Bosanquet (1848 - 1923), and FH Bradley (1846 - 1924).最突出的成员，这所学校被次绿（ 1836至1882年） ，伯纳德bosanquet （ 1848 -1 923） ，和F H布拉德利（ 1 846- 19 24）。 They were united in their opposition to empiricism and utilitarianism and in their emphasis on mind and spirit as primary.他们分别在美国，他们反对经验主义和功利主义，并在其重点放在心和精神，作为首要的。
Buridan's ass buridan的驴
A story, falsely attributed to the fourteenth-century thinker John Buridan, in which an ass, faced with two equally desirable bales of hay, starves to death because he cannot find a good reason for preferring one bale to the other.一个故事，附有虚假产地来源标签归功于第十四世纪思想家约翰buridan ，其中一个驴，面对两个同样不可取捆干草， starves死刑，因为他不能找到一个很好的理由，宁愿一巴莱给对方。
conceptualism conceptualism
The theory that general ideas, such as the idea of man or of redness, exist as entities produced by the human mind and that they can exist in the minds of all men.该理论认为，一般的想法，如想法的人或发红，存在实体制作人的头脑并可以存在在人的头脑中的所有男性。 This view is typically contrasted with nominalism and realism.这种观点是典型的对比与唯和现实主义。
cosmogony 宇宙起源
A theory or story about the origin of the universe, either scientific or mythological.一个理论或故事，宇宙的起源，无论是科学还是神话。 Cosmogonies are also called creation myths.宇宙也称为创造神话。
cosmology 宇宙论
The systematic study of the origin and structure of the universe as a whole.系统研究的起源与宇宙结构作为一个整体。 In such philosophers as Plato, Aristotle, and Kant, cosmology was based on metaphysical speculation; today cosmology is a branch of the physical sciences.在这样的哲学家，因为柏拉图，亚里士多德，康德，宇宙学是基于形而上的投机活动;今天宇宙学是一门自然科学。
deism 自然神论
A philosophical viewpoint appearing in England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and in France in the eighteenth century.一个哲学观点出现在英格兰，在十七世纪和十八世纪，并在法国，在18世纪。 Deists hold that although God created the universe and its laws, He then removed Himself from any ongoing interaction with the material world. deists认为，虽然上帝创造了宇宙和它的法律，然后他除去自己从任何正在进行的互动与物质世界的。
deontology deontology
The ethical philosophy that makes duty the basis of all morality.伦理哲学，使税的基础上的一切道德。 According to deontological theorists, such as Kant, some acts-such as keeping a promise or telling the truth-are moral obligations regardless of their consequences.据deontological理论家，如康德，一些行为-例如不让一个承诺或说真话-是道德义务，而不论其后果。
determinism 宿命论
The view that every event has a cause and that everything in the universe is absolutely dependent on and governed by causal laws.认为每一个事件都有原因，并认为宇宙万物是绝对依赖，并受到因果规律。 Since determinists believe that all events, including human actions, are predetermined, determinism is typically thought to be incompatible with free will.自determinists相信，所有的活动，包括人的行动，是预定的，决定论，是典型的被认为不符合自由意志。
dualism 二元
Any philosophical theory holding that the universe consists of, or can only be explained by, two independent and separate forces, such as matter and spirit, the forces of good and evil, or the supernatural and natural.任何哲学理论，认为宇宙的构成，或只能解释，两个独立和分裂势力，如此事与精神的统一，力量的善良与邪恶，或超自然和自然。 See also mind-body problem.又见身心问题。
duty 税
According to many ethical theories, the basis of the virtuous life.根据许多伦理理论的基础上良性的生活。 The Stoics held that man has a duty to live virtuously and according to reason; and Kant held that his categorical imperative is the highest law of duty, no matter what the consequences.该stoics举行，该名男子有责任向公众生活的合乎道德，并根据原因;康德认为，他斩钉截铁势在必行，这是最高法的职责，不管遇到什么样的后果。
empiricism 经验主义
The view that all knowledge of the world derives solely from sensory experience, using observation and experimentation if needed; empiricism also holds that reason on its own can never provide knowledge of reality unless it also utilizes experience.认为所有知识的世界源于单从感官经验，利用观察和实验，如果需要;经验主义还认为，原因本身不能提供知识的现实，除非它还运用经验。 See also British empiricism.又见英国经验主义。
Enlightenment (Age of Reason) 启示（年龄的原因）
A period that stretched from the early seventeenth to the early nineteenth century, especially in France, England, and Germany.一个时期以来绷从早期第十七至十九世纪初，特别是在法国，英国和德国。 Its thinkers strove to make reason the ruler of human life; they believed that all men could gain knowledge and liberation.其思想家力图使理由统治者的人的生活方式，他们认为，所有男人可以获取知识和人民解放。 Major Enlightenment figures include Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, and Montesquieu in France; Bacon, Hobbes, and Locke in England; and Leibniz, Lessing (1729-81), and Herder (1744 - 1803) in Germany.重大启示数字包括伏尔泰，卢梭，狄德罗，孟德斯鸠在法国;培根，霍布斯，洛克，在英格兰和莱布尼茨，莱辛（ 1729年至1781年） ，和牧民（ 1744 -1 803）在德国。
eschatology 末世
In theology, the study of "final things," such as death, resurrection, immortality, the second coming of Christ, and the day of judgment.在神学方面，研究的"最后的东西" ，如死亡，复活，永生，耶稣第二次来，一天的判断。
existentialism 存在主义
A philosophy of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.哲学，十九世纪和二十世纪。 The dogma holds that since there are no universal values, man's essence is not predetermined but is based only on free choice; man is in a state of anxiety because of his realization of free will; and there is no objective truth.该教条认为，既然不存在任何普世的价值，人的本质不是预先确定，但仅仅基于自由意志的选择;名男子是在一个国家的焦虑，因为他实现自由意志，不存在客观真理。 Major existentialists were Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Sartre, Heidegger, Karl Jaspers (1883 - 1969), and the religious existentialists Martin Buber and Gabriel Marcel (1889 - 1973).主要存在主义者克尔凯郭尔，尼采，萨特，海德格尔，雅斯贝尔斯（ 1883 -1 969） ，和宗教存在主义马丁布伯和加布里埃尔（ M arcel（ 1 889年- 19 73年） 。
fatalism 宿命论
The belief that "what will be will be," since all past, present, and future events have already been predetermined by God or another all-powerful force.坚信"会产生什么样的，将" ，因为所有的过去，现在和未来事件已经预定了上帝或另一种全方位的强大力量。 In religion, this view may be called predestination; it holds that whether our souls go to Heaven or Hell is determined before we are born and is independent of our good deeds.在宗教，这种看法可能是所谓的宿命，它认为，无论我们的灵魂去天堂还是下地狱的决心面前，我们都是土生土长的，是独立于我们的好人好事。
free will 自由意志
The theory that human beings have freedom of choice or self-determination; that is, that given a situation, a person could have done other than what he did.该理论认为，人有选择的自由，或自我的决心，那就是，鉴于情况下，一个人可以做得比其他他的所作所为。 Philosophers have argued that free will is incompatible with determinism.哲学家认为，自由意志，是不符合宿命论。 See also indeterminism.也见indeterminism 。
golden rule 金科玉律
The fundamental moral rule of most religions, especially Christianity, that states, "Do unto others as you would have others do unto you."道德的基本规则的大多数宗教，特别是基督教，即国家， "己所不欲，正如你将别人来做你们" 。
Hegelianism (neo-Hegelianism) 黑格尔（新黑格尔）
A school of thought associated with Hegel in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, especially in England, America, France, and Italy.一所学校的思路与黑格尔在十九世纪和二十世纪初期，尤其是在英国，美国，法国和意大利。 FG Bradley (1846 - 1924), Josiah Royce (1855 - 1916), and Benedetto Croce (1866 - 1952) were prominent members; they emphasized the importance of spirit and the belief that ideas and moral ideals are fundamental.纤维蛋白原布拉德利（ 1846 -1 924） ，乔赛亚罗伊斯（ 1 855- 19 16），和克罗齐（1 8 66-1 95 2）被突出的成员，他们强调，重要的精神和信念的思想和道德理想，是根本。
Hobson's choice hobson的选择
A choice offered without any real alternative- therefore, not really a choice at all.选择提供，没有任何真正的另类，因此，并非真正的选择。
Humanism 人文主义
Any philosophic view that holds that mankind's well-being and happiness in this lifetime are primary and that the good of all humanity is the highest ethical goal.任何哲学认为，认为人类的幸福和快乐，在这一辈子都是小学和良好全人类的，是最高的道德目标。 Twentieth-century humanists tend to reject all beliefs in the supernatural, relying instead on scientific methods and reason.二十世纪人文主义者倾向于拒绝所有的信念在超自然的，而是依靠科学的方法和理由。 The term is also used to refer to Renaissance thinkers, especially in the fifteenth century in Italy, who emphasized knowledge and learning not based on religious sources.该术语也用来指文艺复兴时期的思想家，特别是在15世纪在意大利，他强调知识和学习不是基于宗教的来源。
idealism 唯心主义
A term applied to any philosophy holding that mind or spiritual values, rather than material things or matter, are primary in the universe.任期适用于任何哲学认为主意或精神价值，而不是物质的东西或事情，是主要在宇宙中。 See also British idealism.又见英国唯心主义。
immortality 永生
The view that the individual soul is eternal, and thus survives the death of the body it resides in. See also transmigration of souls.认为个人的灵魂，是永恒的，因而生存死亡的尸体，它寓于英寸也见轮回的灵魂。
indeterminism indeterminism
The view that there are events that do not have any cause; many proponents of free will believe that acts of choice are capable of not being determined by any physiological or psychological cause.认为有事件，也没有任何理由;不少倡议者的自由意志，相信行为的选择，有能力不取决于任何生理或心理的原因。
justice 司法
According to most philosophers, starting with Plato, the harmonious balance between the rights of the various members of a society.根据多数哲学家，从柏拉图，和谐的权利得到平衡各成员的一个社会。 Justice is usually understood as including such social virtues as fairness, equality, and correct and impartial treatment.正义是通常理解为包括通过这种社会美德，为公正，平等，并正确和公正的对待。
logical positivism 逻辑实证主义
A twentieth-century school founded in the 1920s in Europe that was extremely influential for American and English philosophers. 1廿世纪学校创建于1920年，在欧洲，这是非常有影响力的美国和英国哲学家。 It advocated the principle of verifiability, according to which all statements that could not be validated empirically were meaningless.它主张的原则，可核查，根据其中的所有声明说，无法验证的实证都无意义。 Logical positivism held that this principle showed that all of metaphysics, religion, and ethics was incapable of being proved either true or false.逻辑实证主义认为，这一原则表明，所有的形而上学，宗教，伦理，是无法被证明，无论是真的还是假的。 See also Vienna Circle.又见维也纳循环。
Manichaeanism manichaeanism
A religious-philosophical doctrine that originated in Persia in the third century and reappeared throughout the next 1300 years.宗教哲学理论，起源于波斯，在三世纪，并重新出现在整个明年一千三百年。 It holds that the entire universe, especially human life, is a struggle between the opposing forces of good and evil (light and darkness).它认为，整个宇宙中，尤其是人的生命，是一个斗争之间的对立势力的善良与邪恶（光明与黑暗） 。
Marxism 马克思主义
The political, economic, and philosophical theories developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the second half of the nineteenth century.政治，经济和哲学理论的发展，由卡尔马克思和弗里德里希恩格斯在第二十九世纪下半叶。 The philosophical side of Marxism is called dialectical materialism; it emphasizes economic determinism.哲学方面的马克思主义，是所谓的辩证唯物论，它强调经济决定论。 See also dialectical materialism.也见辩证唯物论。
materialism 唯物主义
The theory that holds that the nature of the world is dependent on matter, or that matter is the only fundamental substance; thus, spirit and mind either do not exist or are manifestations of matter.该理论认为，大自然的世界，是依赖于物质，或此事是唯一的基本物质，因此，精神和胸襟，要么不存在，或者是表现的事。
meta-ethics 梅塔伦理
A branch of philosophy that analyzes ethics.的一个分支，哲学的分析，以德治国。 It is concerned with such issues as, How are moral decisions justified?它关注的生活等问题，应如何道义决定有道理吗？ What is the foundation of any ethical view?什么是基础，任何道德的看法如何？ What language is used to state moral beliefs?什么语言，是用于国家的道德信仰吗？
metaphysics 形而上学
The branch of philosophy concerned with the ultimate nature of reality and existence as a whole.该分支机构的哲学与终极性的现实和存在的一个整体。 Metaphysics also includes the study of cosmology and philosophical theology.形而上学的，还包括研究宇宙学和哲学神学。 Aristotle produced the first "system" of metaphysics.亚里士多德产生了世界上第一个"系统"的形而上学。
monad 单子
According to Leibniz, the ultimate and indivisible units of all existence.根据莱布尼茨，最终的和不可分割的单位都存在。 Monads are not material, like atoms; each monad is self-activating, a unique center of force. Monad的不是物质，如原子;每个Monad的自我激活，这是一种独特的中心力量。 All monads are in a "pre-established harmony" with each other and with God, the supreme monad.所有Monad的是，在一份"预先确定的和谐"相互之间以及与上帝，最高人民法院单子。
monism 一元论
The theory that everything in the universe is composed of, or can be explained by or reduced to, one fundamental substance, energy, or force.该理论认为，宇宙万物组成的，或者可以解释或减少，其中一个根本的物质，能量，或武力。
mysticism 神秘主义
Any philosophy whose roots are in mystical experiences, intuitions, or direct experiences of the divine.任何哲学，其根源是在神秘的经验，直觉，或直接经验神圣的。 In such experiences, the mystic believes that his or her soul has temporarily achieved union with God.在这样的经验，神秘认为他或她的灵魂已暂时取得了联盟与上帝。 Mystics believe reality can be known only in this manner, not through reasoning or everyday experience.神秘主义者认为，现实的，可只知道用这种方式，而不是通过推理或日常经验。
myth of Er 神话呃
A parable at the end of Plato's Republic about the fate of souls after bodily death; according to Plato, the soul must choose wisdom in the afterlife to guarantee a good life in its next cycle of incarnation.寓言在去年底柏拉图的共和国关于命运的心灵，身体后死亡;根据柏拉图，一个是灵魂，必须选择的智慧，在来世，以保证有一个好的生活，在其下一个周期的化身。
naturalism 自然主义
A philosophic view stating that all there is in reality is what the physical and human sciences (for example, physics or psychology) study and that there is no need to posit any supernatural forces or being, such as God, mind, or spirit.哲学观点表示，所有有在现实中是什么物理科学及人文科学（例如，物理或心理）的研究，以及有没有必要要把任何超自然的力量或正，如神，心，或精神。
naturalistic fallacy 自然主义谬误
A belief of many twentieth-century philosophers in England and America that it is invalid to infer any statements of morality (for example, "Men ought to act kindly") from factual statements (for example, "Kindness is a natural quality").信仰许多二十世纪的哲学家，在英国和美国，它是无效的推断任何声明，道德的（例如， "男人应该以友善的行为" ） ，从事实陈述（例如， "爱心，是一个很自然的品质" ） 。 The notion tries to derive ought from is and was first described by Hume.概念试图从中理应由是，并且首次描述休谟。
natural law 自然法
The theory that there is a higher law than the manmade laws put forth by specific governments.该理论认为，有一个更高的法比人工法律提出具体的政府。 This law is universal, unchanging, and a fundamental part of human nature.这部法律是普遍的，一成不变的，也不利于从根本上一部分人的本性。 Advocates of this view believe that natural law can be discovered by reason alone.提倡这种观点认为，自然法，可以发现原因。 The theory originated with the Stoics and was elaborated on by St. Thomas Aquinas, among others.理论源于同stoics ，并阐述了由圣托马斯阿奎那，等等。
natural rights 天赋人权
Certain freedoms or privileges that are held to be an innate part of the nature of being a human being and that cannot be denied by society.某些自由或特权举行是一个天生的一部分的性质，是一个人与一个不能否认的社会化发放。 These are different from civil rights, which are granted by a specific nation or government.这些都是从不同的民事权利，这是理所当然的是由某个国家或政府首脑。 Philosophers have differed on which rights are natural, but usually included are life, liberty, equality, equal treatment under the law, the pursuit of happiness, and equality of opportunity.哲学家有不同的哪些权利是天然的，但通常都包括生命，自由，平等，平等相待，根据法律规定，追求幸福的，和机会均等。 Locke's influential views on natural rights inspired the writers of the American Constitution.洛克的影响力的看法自然权利，激发了作家的美国宪法。
Neoplatonism neoplatonism
A school of philosophy that flourished from the second to the fifth centuries AD It was founded by Plotinus and was influential for the next thousand years.一所学校的理念，蓬勃发展，从第二届到第五届百年专案，它是由普罗提诺和影响力，为明年5000年。
nihilism 虚无主义
A term first used in Fathers and Sons (1862) by the Russian novelist Turgenev.任期首次使用，在父亲和儿子（ 1862年）由俄罗斯小说家屠格涅夫。 Ethical nihilism is the theory that morality cannot be justified in any way and that all moral values are, therefore, meaningless and irrational.道德虚无主义，是理论道德，没有理由以任何方式，并要求所有的道德价值，因此，它们没有意义，并不合理。 Political nihilism is the social philosophy that society and its institutions are so corrupt that their complete destruction is desirable.政治虚无主义，是社会哲学，社会及其机构，使腐败彻底销毁是可取的。 Nihilists may, therefore, advocate violence and even terrorism in the name of overthrowing what they believe to be a corrupt social order. nihilists可能，因此，崇尚暴力，甚至恐怖主义的名义，推翻他们所认为是一个腐败的社会治安秩序。
nominalism 唯
The view that general terms, such as "table," do not refer to essences, concepts, abstract ideas, or anything else; "table" makes sense only because all tables resemble each other.认为一般条款，如"表" ，而不是指本质，概念，抽象的概念，或者什么都"表"是有道理的，只是因为各表相似对方。 According to this view, such general terms do not have any independent existence.根据这一观点，这样的一般条款，并无任何独立存在。
objectivism 客观主义
The view that there are moral truths that are valid universally and that it is wrong to knowingly gain pleasure from causing another pain.认为，有道德的真理，这是有效的普遍认为这是错误的，以明知而获得的乐趣，造成另一种痛苦。
obligation 义务
In ethics, a moral necessity to do a specific deed.在伦理，道德上的必要性做一个具体的行动上。 Some ethicists, following Kant, hold that moral obligations are absolute.一些伦理学家，以下康德，认为道德义务是绝对的。
Ockham's razor ockham的剃刀
A principle attributed to the fourteenth-century English philosopher William of Ockham.一个原则归因于第十四世纪的英国哲学家威廉的ockham 。 It states that entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity, or that one should choose the simplest explanation, the one requiring the fewest assumptions and principles.该国表示，实体不应再乘以超出必要性，或任何人都不应选择最简单的解释，一，规定最少的假设和原则。
ontology 本体
A branch of metaphysics that studies the nature of existence or reality, as such, as opposed to specific types of existing entities.的一个分支，形而上学研究的性质，存在或现实，因此，作为反对特定类型的现有实体。
operationalism (operationism) operationalism （ operationism ）
A philosophy of science according to which any scientific concept must be definable in terms of concrete, observable activities or the operations to which it refers.一门哲学的科学根据，任何科学的概念必须界定在具体的，看得见的活动或行动，它是指。
pantheism 泛神论
The belief that God and the universe are identical; among modern philosophers, Spinoza is considered to be a pantheist.相信上帝和宇宙是一致的，其中现代哲学家，斯宾诺莎认为是一个pantheist 。
Pascal's wager 帕斯卡的打赌
An argument made by Blaise Pascal for believing in God.一个论点所作出的布莱斯帕斯卡尔相信上帝。 Pascal said that either the tenets of Roman Catholicism are true or they are not.帕斯卡尔说，无论是原理，罗马天主教是真还是假，他们是没有意义的。 If they are true, and we wager that they are true, then we have won an eternity of bliss; if they are false, and death is final, what has the bettor lost?如果他们是真的，我们打赌说，他们是真的话，那么我们已经取得了一个永恒的极乐世界，如果他们是假的，死是最终决定，有什么投注失去了什么？ On the other hand, if one wagers against God's existence and turns out to be wrong, there is eternal damnation.在另一方面，如果赌对上帝的存在和原来是错的，有永恒damnation 。
personalism personalism
A term applied to any philosophy that makes personality (whether of people, God, or spirit) the supreme value or the source of reality.任期适用于任何哲学，使人格（无论是在人，神，或精神） ，最高值或来源的现实。 Personalism as a movement flourished in England and America in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. personalism作为一个运动的蓬勃开展，在英国和美国是在19世纪和20世纪。 Personalists are usually idealists. personalists通常是理想主义者。
pessimism 悲观
The philosophic attitude holding that hope is unreasonable, that man is born to sorrow, and that this is the worst of all possible worlds.哲学态度，认为希望是不合理的，人是天生的悲痛，并认为这是最坏的一切可能的世界。 Schopenhauer's philosophy is an example of extreme pessimism.叔本华的哲学是一个例子，极端悲观。
philosopher king 哲学家国王
In Plato's Republic, a philosopher trained by formal study in disciplines including mathematics and philosophy.在柏拉图的共和国，是一位哲学家，由受过训练的正规学习的学科包括数学和哲学。 Plato emphasized that philosopher kings' leadership would be shown by their ability to see the Forms, or universal ideals.柏拉图强调说，哲学家国王的领导会表现出他们的能力，看看表，或普遍理想。
philosophy of mind 心灵哲学
The area of philosophy that studies the mind, consciousness, and mental functions such as thinking, intention, imagination, and emotion.该地区的哲学研究的思想，意识，心理功能，如思维，意向，想象，和感情因素。 It is not one specific branch of philosophy, but rather an aspect of most traditional branches, such as metaphysics, epistemology, and aesthetics.这不是一个特定分支哲学，而是一个方面，最传统的分行，如形而上学，认识论，美学。
philosophy of religion 宗教哲学
A branch of philosophy concerned with such questions as, What is religion?的一个分支，哲学关心的问题，例如，什么是宗教？ What is God?什么是上帝？ Can God's existence be proved?可上帝的存在加以证明？ Is there immortality?有不死？ What is the relationship between faith, reason, and revelation?是什么关系信仰，原因及启示？ Is there a divine purpose in the world?究竟有没有神的目的，在世界上呢？
philosophy of science 科学哲学
The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of science.该分支机构的哲学，就是研究科学的本质。 It is particularly concerned with the methods, concepts, and assumptions of science, as well as with analyzing scientific concepts such as space, time, cause, scientific law, and verification.它特别关注的方法，观念和假设，科学，以及与分析科学的概念，如空间，时间，成因，科学规律，与核查。
Platonism 柏拉图
Thoughts and writings developed in the fifth century BC in Athens by Plato, the greatest student of Socrates.思想和著作发达，在公元前五世纪雅典的柏拉图，最大的学生，苏格拉底。 Platonism's chief tenet is that the ultimate reality consists of unchanging, absolute, eternal entities called Ideas or Forms; all earthly objects are not truly real but merely partake in the Forms.柏拉图的行政特尼特表示，最终的现实构成不变的，绝对的，永恒的实体，所谓的理念或形式;世间的一切物体都没有真正的实质，而只是参与形式。
Plato's cave 柏拉图的洞穴
An analogy in Plato's Republic between reality and illusion.一个比喻，在柏拉图的共和国之间的现实与幻想。 The main image is of men who see on the walls of a cave only the shadows of the real objects moving around outside the cave.主要形象的男子，他们看到墙壁上的洞，只有阴影部分的真实物体走动外窟。 When these men leave the cave and see the real objects, they cannot, upon returning to the cave, convince those who have never left of the reality of the objects.当这些男子离开洞穴，看到了真正的对象，他们不能归来后，向洞窟，说服那些从未离开过的现实的物体。
pluralism 多元化
The view that there are more than two kinds of fundamental, irreducible realities in the universe, or that there are many separate and independent levels of reality.认为有超过2种根本的，不可现实，在宇宙中，还是有很多独立运作层面的现实。
positivism 实证主义
A theory originated by French philosopher Auguste Comte.理论来源于法国哲学家（ Auguste伯爵。 It holds that all knowledge is defined by the limits of scientific investigation; thus, philosophy must abandon any quest for knowledge of an ultimate reality or any knowledge beyond that offered by science.它认为，所有的知识是确定的界限，科学考察，因此，哲学必须放弃任何追求知识的最终现实还是有知识，还能提供的科学。 See also logical positivism.又见逻辑实证。
Pragmatism 实用主义
An American philosophy developed in the nineteenth century by Charles Sanders Peirce (1839 - 1914) and William James, and elaborated on in the twentieth century by John Dewey.一位美国哲学的发展，在19世纪由查尔斯桑德斯皮尔士（ 1839 -1 914）和威廉詹姆斯，并着重阐述了在2 0世纪，由杜威。 Its central precepts are that thinking is primarily a guide to action and that the truth of any idea lies in its practical consequences.其中心信条是：思想，首先是一个行动指南，并认为真理的任何想法在于，它的实际后果。
principle (or law) of noncontradiction 原则（或法律）的noncontradiction
Dating back to Aristotle, this universally accepted "law of thought" has two parts: a statement cannot be both true and false; nothing can both have a quality, like red, and not have it, at the same time.可以追溯到亚里士多德，这普遍认同的"法律思想" ，主要有两部分：一项声明不能既是真实和虚假的，没有都可以一个优质，像红色，并没有它，在同一时间举行。
rationalism 理性主义
The philosophic approach that holds that reality is knowable by the use of reason or thinking alone, without recourse to observation or experience.哲学的做法，认为现实是可知的，由使用的原因，或独自思考，而不诉诸观察或经验。 See also seventeenth-century rationalists.也见十七世纪理性。
realism 写实
The major medieval and modern view on the problem of universals other than nominalism.主要中世纪和现代观点对问题的共性以外唯名。 Extreme realism, which is close to Plato's theory of Forms, holds that universals exist independently of both particular things and the human mind; moderate realism holds that they exist as ideas in God's mind, through which He creates things.极端写实主义，这是接近柏拉图的理论形式，认为共性是独立存在的两种东西，尤其是与人的头脑;温和现实主义认为，他们的存在，因为思想上帝的心灵，透过他所创造的东西。
relativism 相对论
The precept that people's ideas of right and wrong vary considerably from place to place and time to time; therefore, there are no universally valid ethical standards.该信条的人的想法的正确与错误的差别很大，从地方和时间，以时间，因此，不存在普遍有效的道德标准。
Scholasticism 士林
A general term referring to the Christian philosophy of the Middle Ages, especially at the medieval universities.一个统称，是指基督教哲学的中世纪，尤其是在中世纪大学。 The Scholastics basically followed Aristotle's empiricism, using highly analytical logical and linguistic methods of argumentation, especially with respect to the problem of universals.该scholastics基本沿袭了亚里士多德的经验主义，用高度的分析逻辑和语言方法的论证，尤其是对问题的共性。
solipsism solipsism
The theory that one cannot know anything other than his or her own thoughts, feelings, or perceptions; therefore, other people and the real world must be projections of one's own mind with no existence in and of themselves.该理论认为，人可以不知道任何事情，除了他或她自己的思想，情感，或观感，因此，其他人与现实世界要预测一个人的自己的头脑，不存在在自己的。 See also egocentric predicament.也见自我中心困境。
spiritism spiritism
A term referring to the belief that spirits of the dead communicate with the living, for instance, at seances or through a medium.任期是指相信神的死沟通与生活，举例来说，在seances或通过媒介。
spiritualism 唯心论
The view that the ultimate reality in the universe is the spirit.认为最终的现实，在宇宙中是精神。 Advocates of this view may disagree about the nature of the spirit.提倡这种观点可能不同意有关精神的本质。
Stoicism 生活俭朴
A Greek school founded by Zeno in the third century BC Stoics held that men should submit to natural law and that a man's chief duty is to conform to his destiny.一名希腊学校创办芝诺在公元前三世纪stoics认为男人都要服从自然法，并认为人的行政责任，是符合他的命运。 They also believed the soul to be another form of matter, and thus not immortal.他们还认为，灵魂，以另一种方式的问题，因此没有神仙。
supernaturalism supernaturalism
The belief that there are forces, energies, or beings beyond the material world-such as God, spirit, or occult forces-that affect events in our world.相信有力量，精力，还是被超越了物质世界，如上帝，是精神，或者隐匿势力-影响的事件，我们的世界。
syllogism 三段论
A kind of deductive reasoning or argument.一种演绎推理或论据。 As defined by Aristotle, it was considered the basis of reasoning for over two thousand years.界定亚里士多德，它被认为是基础的推理超过二千年。 In every syllogism, there are two statements (premises) from which a conclusion follows necessarily.在每一个三段论，有两个报表（处所） ，从其中一个结论如下未必。 Syllogisms are of three basic logical types, as illustrated by these examples: syllogisms有三个基本的逻辑类型所表明的那样，这些例子：
tabula rasa 搭仅限于Rasa
A Latin phrase meaning "blank slate," used by Locke to describe the state of the human mind at birth.一个拉丁字，意思是"空白板岩" ，用洛克来形容国家的人的头脑出生。 Locke believed there are no innate ideas and that the mind gets all of its ideas from experience.骆家辉认为，不存在任何先天的思想和心灵得到其所有的想法，从经验。
teleological ethics teleological伦理
In contrast with deontological ethics, this moral theory holds that whether an action is morally right depends solely on its expected consequences.相比之下，与deontological道德，这种道德理论认为，一项行动是否在道义上的权利，完全取决于其预期的后果。 See also utilitarianism.也见功利主义。
Thomism thomism
The philosophical and theological system developed by St. Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century.哲学与神学系统是由圣托马斯阿奎那在13世纪。 One of its chief principles is that philosophy seeks truth through reason while theology seeks it through revelation from God; therefore, the two are compatible.它的一个总的原则，就是哲学求真务实理性，而神学的目的，它是通过启示来自上帝，所以说，两者是相容的。
transcendent 超然
Beyond the realm of sense experience.超越的境界意义上的经验。 In many religious views, God is held to be transcendent.在许多宗教的看法，上帝是向被超越。
Transcendentalism 验
A nineteenth-century movement developed in New England and expounded by Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 - 82) and Henry David Thoreau (1817 - 62).十九世纪运动的发展，在新英格兰，并阐述了由拉尔夫waldo艾默生（ 1803 -8 2）和亨利大卫梭罗（ 1 817- 62 ）。 It maintains that beyond our material world of experience is an ideal spiritual reality that can be grasped intuitively.它坚持认为超出我们的物质世界的经验，是一种理想的精神现实的，可以把握的直觉。
transmigration of souls 轮回的灵魂
The belief that the same soul can, in different lifetimes (incarnations), reside in different bodies, human or animal.认为可以用同样的灵魂，可以在不同的寿命（化身） ，居住在不同的机构，人类或动物。 While typically a part of most Eastern religions, the doctrine came into Western philosophy from Pythagoras and his contemporaries in the sixth century BC and especially through Plato.而通常的一部分，大部分东方宗教，学说生效西方哲学从毕达哥拉斯和他同时代的，在公元前六世纪，特别是通过柏拉图。
utilitarianism 功利主义
A theory of morality holding that all actions should be judged for rightness or wrongness in terms of their consequences; thus, the amount of pleasure people derive from those consequences becomes the measure of moral goodness.论道德控股的一切行动应判断为对或是错的，在计算其后果，因此，保额的乐趣的人来自这些后果，成为衡量道德的善。 Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, in the nineteenth century, were the chief proponents of this view.杰里米边沁和弥尔，在19世纪，包括政务倡议者的这一观点。 See also principle of utility.又见原则，对公用设施。
utopianism 乌托邦
The belief in the possibility or desirability of not just a better but a perfect society.信仰的可能性还是可取的，不只是更好，但一个完美的社会。 The term derives from Sir Thomas More's Utopia (1516), which depicts an ideal state.一词源自托马斯先生更多的乌托邦（ 1516 ） ，其中描绘了一个理想的状态。 Utopian states also appear in the writings of Plato and Bacon.乌托邦式的国家也出现在著作的柏拉图和培根。
Young Hegelians 年轻的黑格尔派
A group of thinkers in Germany in the first half of the nineteenth century whose views strongly influenced Karl Marx.一批思想家的德国在第一十九世纪下半叶，其观点的强烈影响卡尔马克思。 They were followers of Hegel who believed that the political conditions under which they lived were irrational.他们的追随者黑格尔的人认为，政治条件下，他们生活的人不理性。 They held that the goal of philosophy should be to promote a revolution of ideas and critical thinking about the world.他们认为，该目标的理念应是推动革命的思想和批判性思维对于世界。 Ludwig Feuerbach (1804 - 72) was the most important of the Young Hegelians.路德维希费尔巴哈（ 1804 -7 2）是最重要的青年黑格尔派。
Also, see:此外，见：
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