Major World Philosophers世界主要哲学家

General Information 一般资料

Abelard, Peter 阿贝拉尔彼得。
(1079 - 1142). （ 1079 -1 142） 。 French philosopher.法国哲学家。 One of the most influential medieval logicians and theologians.其中最有影响力的中世纪logicians和神学家。 Around 1113, while teaching theology in Paris, Abelard fell in love with his student Heloise, whom he secretly married; he was condemned for heresy a few years later because of his nominalist views about universals.大约1113年，而教学神学在巴黎，阿贝拉尔迷上他的学生埃洛伊兹，他秘密结婚，他被谴责为异端，数年后，由于他nominalist看法共性。
BELIEVE 相信
Religious 宗教
Information 资讯
Source 源
web-site 网址：
Our List of 1,000 Religious Subjects 我们所列出的1000名宗教科目
E-mail 电子邮箱
Anaxagoras 阿那克萨戈拉
(c. 500 - 428 BC). （长500 -4 28B C）的。 Greek Presocratic philosopher who is said to have made Athens the center of philosophy and to have been Socrates' teacher; he rejected the four elements theory of Empedocles and posited instead an infinite number of unique particles of which all objects are composed. presocratic希腊哲学家，据说已取得雅典奥运会的中心，哲学，并已苏格拉底教师;回绝了四个要素理论的恩培多克勒和假定而不是无限多的独特粒子，其中所有的对象组成。
Anselm, St. anselm ，圣
(1033 - 1109). （ 1033 -1 109） 。 Italian monk and Scholastic theologian who became archbishop of Canterbury.意大利修士和神学家在学术上的人成为坎特伯雷大主教。 St. Anselm founded Scholasticism, integrated Aristotelian logic into theology, and believed that reason and revelation are compatible.圣anselm成立士林，综合亚里士多德逻辑到神学，并认为原因及启示是相容的。 He is most famous for his influential ontological argument for God's existence.他是最有名的，他有影响的本体论的论据，上帝的存在。
Aquinas, St. Thomas 阿奎那，圣托马斯
(1225 - 74). （ 1225 -7 4） 。 The greatest thinker of the Scholastic School.最伟大的思想家在学业上学。 His ideas were, in 1879, made the official Catholic philosophy.他的想法，在1879年，取得了官方的天主教哲学。 He incorporated Greek ideas into Christianity by showing Aristotle's thought to be compatible with church doctrine.他注册成立的希腊思想统一到基督教所显示亚里士多德的思想，就必须符合教会的教义。 In his system, reason and faith (revelation) form two separate but harmonious realms whose truths complement rather than oppose one another.在他的体系，理性和信仰（启示）的方式在两个独立的，但又和谐境界，其真理补充，而不是反对对方。 He presented influential philosophical proofs for the existence of God.他提出了有影响力的哲学证明上帝存在的。
Aristotle 亚里士多德
(384 - 322 BC). （ 384 -3 22B C）的。 Greek philosopher, scientist, logician, and student of many disciplines.希腊哲学家，科学家，逻辑，以及学生的许多学科。 Aristotle studied under Plato and became the tutor of Alexander the Great.亚里士多德下，研究柏拉图，并成为导师的亚历山大大帝。 In 335 he opened the Lyceum, a major philosophical and scientific school in Athens.在335他开烈斯，一个重要的哲学和科学学院在雅典举行。 Aristotle emphasized the observation of nature and analyzed all things in terms of "the four causes."亚里士多德强调，观察大自然，并分析了所有的东西，在"四大原因" 。 In ethics, he stressed that virtue is a mean between extremes and that man's highest goal should be the use of his intellect.在伦理，他强调说，德是指极端之间，并认为人的最高目标应该是使用他的智力。 Most of Aristotle's works were lost to Christian civilization from the fifth through the twelfth centuries.最亚里士多德的作品，均输给了基督教文明，从第五，通过第十二届百年。
Augustine of Hippo, St. 奥古斯丁的小河马，圣
(354 - 430). （ 354 -4 30） 。 The greatest of the Latin church fathers and possibly the most influential Christian thinker after St. Paul.最大的拉美教会父亲和可能是最有影响力的基督教思想家后，圣保禄。 St. Augustine emphasized man's need for grace.圣奥古斯丁强调人的需要为宽限期。 His Confessions and The City of God were highly influential.他的口供，并在上帝的圣城高度的影响力。
Averroes averroes
(1126 - 98). （ 1126 -9 8） 。 Spanish-born Arabian philosopher, lawyer, and physician whose detailed commentaries on Aristotle were influential for over 300 years.西班牙出生的阿拉伯哲学家，律师，医师，其详细的评论，亚里士多德被有影响力的超过300年。 He emphasized the compatibility of faith and reason but believed philosophical knowledge to be derived from reason.他强调兼容性的信仰与理性的，但他相信哲学知识可能来自理由。 The Church condemned his views.教会谴责了他的看法。
Avicenna 阿维森纳
(980 - 1037). （ 980 -1 037） 。 Islamic medieval philosopher born in Persia.伊斯兰中世纪哲学家出生于波斯。 His Neoplatonist interpretation of Aristotle greatly influenced medieval philosophers, including St. Thomas Aquinas.他neoplatonist解释亚里士多德极大地影响了中世纪哲学家，其中包括圣托马斯阿奎那。 Avicenna was also a physician; his writings on medicine were important for nearly 500 years.阿维森纳也是一个医师，他的著作对中医很重要了近500年之久。
Bacon, Sir Francis 培根先生弗朗西斯
(1561 - 1626). （ 1561 -1 626） 。 English statesman, essayist, and philosopher, one of the great precursors of the tradition of British empiricism and of belief in the importance of scientific method.英语政治家，散文家和哲学家，一个伟大的前兆传统的英国经验主义和信仰中的重要性，科学的方法。 He emphasized the use of inductive reasoning in the pursuit of knowledge.他强调，使用归纳推理在追求知识。
Boethius 论波爱修斯
(c. 475 - 535). （长475 -5 35） 。 Roman statesman, philosopher, and translator of Aristotle, whose Consolation of Philosophy (written in prison) was widely read throughout the Middle Ages; it showed reason's role in the face of misfortune and was the link between the ancient philosophers and the Scholastics.古罗马的政治家，哲学家和翻译家的亚里士多德，他们感到安慰的哲学（写在监狱）被广为阅读的整个中世纪，它表明原因的作用，在面对不幸，而且是连接古代哲学家和scholastics 。
Descartes, Rene 笛卡儿雷尼
(1596 - 1650). （ 1596 -1 650） 。 French philosopher and scientist, considered the father of modern philosophical inquiry.法国哲学家和科学家，认为父亲的现代哲学探究。 Descartes tried to extend mathematical method to all knowledge in his search for certainty.笛卡儿试图扩大数学方法，对所有的知识在他寻找确定性。 Discarding the medieval appeal to authority, he began with "universal doubt," finding that the only thing that could not be doubted was his own thinking.抛弃中世纪呼吁权力后，他开始与"普遍怀疑， "发现的唯一一件事不能被怀疑是他自己的想法。 The result was his famous "Cogito, ergo sum," or "I think, therefore I am."结果是他的著名的"我思，号ETM总之， "或"我思故我在" 。
Dewey, John 杜威，约翰。
(1859 - 1952). （ 1859 -1 952） 。 Leading American philosopher, psychologist, and educational theorist.美国著名的哲学家，心理学家和教育理论家。 Dewey developed the views of Charles S. Peirce (1839 - 1914) and William James into his own version of pragmatism.杜威发达的意见，查尔斯第皮尔士（ 1839 -1 914）和威廉詹姆斯到他自己版本的实用主义。 He emphasized the importance of inquiry in gaining knowledge and attacked the view that knowledge is passive.他强调，必须把调查掌握这些知识和攻击，认为知识是被动的。
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 黑格尔，格奥威廉弗里德里希
(1770 - 1831). （ 1770 -1 831） 。 German philosopher whose idealistic system of metaphysics was highly influential; it was based on a concept of the world as a single organism developing by its own inner logic through trios of stages called "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis" and gradually coming to embody reason.德国哲学家，其理想化系统的形而上学，是很有影响力的，它是基于对概念的世界作为一个单一的有机体，发展自己的内在逻辑，通过trios的阶段，所谓的"论文，对偶，与合成" ，并逐步来体现的原因。 Hegel held the monarchy to be the highest development of the state.黑格尔举行君主制成为国家最高国家的发展。
Heidegger, Martin 海德格尔，马丁
(1889 - 1976). （ 1889年-1 976年） 。 German philosopher who studied with Husserl.德国哲学家，他们研究了与胡塞尔。 Heidegger's own philosophy, which was influenced by Kierkegaard, emphasized the need to understand "being," especially the unique ways that humans act in and relate to the world.海德格尔自己的理念，是受克尔凯郭尔强调，要理解" ，正" ，特别是独特的方式，人类的行为，并涉及到世界各地。
Hobbes, Thomas 霍布斯，托马斯
(1588 - 1679). （ 1588 -1 679） 。 English materialist and empiricist, one of the founders of modern political philosophy.英语唯物主义和经验主义的奠基人之一，现代政治哲学。 In the Leviathan, Hobbes argued that because men are selfish by nature, a powerful absolute ruler is necessary.在利维坦，霍布斯说，正因为男人是自私的本质上说，一个强大的绝对统治者，是必要的。 In a "social contract," men agree to give up many personal liberties and accept such rule.在一个"社会契约" ，男子同意放弃了许多个人自由和接受这样的规则。
Hume, David 休谟，大卫
(1711 - 76). （ 1711 -7 6） 。 British empiricist whose arguments against the proofs for God's existence are still influential.英国经验主义者，其论据反对证明上帝的存在仍具有影响力。 Hume held that moral beliefs have no basis in reason, but are based solely on custom.休谟认为，道德，信念都没有依据的理由，但都是只基于风俗。
James, William 詹姆斯，威廉。
(1842 - 1910). （ 1878 -1 910） 。 American philosopher and psychologist, one of the founders of Pragmatism, and one of the most influential thinkers of his era.美国哲学家和心理学家的奠基人之一，实用主义的，其中最有影响力的思想家，他的时代。 James viewed consciousness as actively shaping reality, defined truth as "the expedient" way of thinking, and held that ideas are tools for guiding our future actions rather than reproductions of our past experiences.詹姆斯认为，意识是积极营造实际出发，确定了真相，以"权宜性"的思维方式，并认为这想法是工具，指导我们今后的行动，而不是复制过去的经验。
Kant, Immanuel 康德，伊曼纽
(1724 - 1804). （ 1724 -1 804） 。 German philosopher, possibly the most influential of modern times.德国哲学家，可能是最有影响力的现代倍。 He synthesized Leibniz's rationalism and Hume's skepticism into his "critical philosophy": that ideas do not conform to the external world, but rather the world can be known only insofar as it conforms to the mind's own structure.他合成了莱布尼兹的理性主义和休谟的怀疑论进他的"批判哲学" ：即思路不符合外部世界，而是世界上可以被称为仅仅是因为它符合心中的自己的结构。 Kant claimed that morality requires a belief in God, freedom, and immortality, although these can be proved neither scientifically nor by metaphysics.康德声称，道德需要信仰上帝，自由和不朽的，虽然这些可以证明既不科学也不是形而上学。
Kierkegaard, Soren 克尔凯郭尔，不容错过
(1813 - 55). （ 1813 -5 5） 。 Danish philosopher, religious thinker, and extraordinarily influential founder of existentialism.丹麦哲学家，宗教思想家，而且非常有影响力的创办人的存在。 Kierkegaard held that "truth is subjectivity," that religion is an individual matter, and that man's relationship to God requires suffering.克尔凯郭尔认为， "真理是主观性" ，即宗教是个人的事，那人的关系，向上帝要求痛苦。
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm 莱布尼兹， （ Gottfried Wilhelm的
(1646 - 1716). （ 1646 -1 716） 。 German philosopher, diplomat, and mathematician, one of the great minds of all time.德国哲学家，外交家，数学家，一个伟大的头脑中的所有时间。 Leibniz was an inventor (with Sir Isaac Newton) of the calculus and a forefather of modern mathematical logic.莱布尼茨是一个发明家（艾萨克牛顿爵士）的演算以及祖先的现代数理逻辑。 He held that the entire universe is one large system expressing God's plan.他认为，整个宇宙是一个大系统，表达上帝的计划。
Locke, John 洛克，约翰。
(1632 - 1704). （ 1632 -1 704） 。 Highly influential founder of British empiricism.很有影响力的创始人，英国的经验主义。 Locke believed that all ideas come to mind from experience and that none are innate.骆家辉认为，所有的想法来获得身心的经验，并没有一个是天生的。 He also held that authority derives solely from the consent of the governed, a view that deeply influenced the American Revolution and the writing of the US Constitution.他还认为，机管局的单从征得被治理者，有一种观点认为，深深地影响了美国革命和写作的美国宪法。
Machiavelli, Niccolo 马基雅维尼克洛
(1469 - 1527). （ 1469 -王子） 。 Italian Renaissance statesman and political writer.意大利文艺复兴时期的政治家和政治作家。 In The Prince, one of the most influential political books of modern times, Machiavelli argues that any act of a ruler designed to gain and hold power is permissible.在王子，其中最有影响力的政治书籍的当今时代，马基雅维里认为，任何行为的直尺，旨在争取握有权力，是不被允许的。 The term Machiavellian is used to refer to any political tactics that are cunning and power-oriented.任期马基雅弗利是用来指任何政治手腕，这是狡诈和电力为主。
Maimonides 迈蒙尼德
(1135 - 1204). （ 1135 -1 204） 。 Spanish-born medieval Jewish philosopher and thinker.西班牙出生的中世纪犹太哲学家和思想家。 Maimonides tried to synthesize Aristotelian and Judaic thought.迈蒙尼德试图合成亚里士多德和犹太思想。 His works had enormous influence on Jewish and Christian thought.他的作品曾产生巨大影响，犹太教和基督教思想。
Marx, Karl 马克思，卡尔。
(1818 - 83). （ 1818 -8 3） 。 German revolutionary thinker, social philosopher, and economist.德国的革命思想家，社会哲学家和经济学家。 His ideas, formulated with Engels, laid the foundation for nineteenth-century socialism and twentieth-century communism.他的思想，制定了符合恩格斯，奠定了基础，为19世纪的社会主义与二十世纪的共产主义。 Although Marx was initially influenced by Hegel, he soon rejected Hegel's idealism in favor of materialism.虽然马克思最初是受黑格尔，他很快拒绝了黑格尔的唯心主义主张的唯物论。 His Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital are among the most important writings of the last 200 years.他的共产党宣言和资本论，是其中最重要的著作过去200年。
Mill, John Stuart 轧机，约翰斯图亚特
(1806 - 73). （ 1806 -7 3） 。 English empiricist philosopher, logician, economist, and social reformer.英语经验主义哲学家，逻辑，经济学家，社会改革者。 His System of Logic described the basic rules for all scientific reasoning.他的系统的逻辑描述的基本规则，为所有的科学道理。 As a student of Jeremy Bentham, he elaborated on utilitarian ethics; in On Liberty, he presented a plea for the sanctity of individual rights against the power of any government.作为一名学生的杰里米边沁，他还阐述了功利主义伦理学;论自由，他提出了一个呼吁，为神圣不可侵犯的个人权利，防止权力的任何一个政府。
Moore, GE (George Edward) 穆尔，奇异电器（乔治爱德华）
(1873 - 1958). （ 1873 -1 958） 。 British philosopher who emphasized the "common sense" view of the reality of material objects.英国哲学家，他们强调"常识"鉴于现实的物质对象。 In ethics, Moore held that goodness is a quality known directly by moral intuition and that it is a fallacy to try to define it in terms of anything else.在伦理，穆尔认为，善是一个质量已知直接由道德良知，而且这是一个谬论，试图界定无论在任何事情都重要。
More, Sir Thomas 此外，托马斯先生
(1478 - 1535). （ 1478 -1 535） 。 A leading Renaissance humanist and statesman, Lord Chancellor of England.领先文艺复兴时期的人道主义者和政治家，英国的英格兰。 More was beheaded for refusing to accept the king as head of the Church.更被斩首拒绝接受国王为教会的头。 Influenced by Greek thinking, he believed in social reform and drew a picture of an ideal peaceful state in his Utopia.受希腊思想，他认为，在社会改革，并提请一幅理想的和平国家，在他的乌托邦。
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm 尼采，弗里德里希威廉
(1844 - 1900). （ 1844 -1 900） 。 German philosopher, philologist, and poet.德国哲学家，学家，诗人。 As a moralist, he rejected Christian values and championed a "Superman" who would create a new, life-affirming, heroic ethic by his "will to power."作为一个道德的，他拒绝了基督教的价值观和倡导的"超人" ，他们将创造一个新的，肯定生命，英雄伦理，由他的"权力意志" 。
Pascal, Blaise 帕斯卡尔，布莱斯
(1623 - 62). （ 1623 -6 2） 。 French philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and theologian.法国哲学家，数学家，科学家，神学家。 His posthumous Pensees ("Thoughts") argues that reason is by itself inadequate for man's spiritual needs and cannot bring man to God, who can be known only through mystic understanding.他追授pensees （简称"思考" ）认为，原因是由本身的不足，因为人的精神需求，并不能带来男子向上帝，谁又能知道，只有通过神秘的了解。
Plato 柏拉图
(c. 428 - c. 348 BC). （长428 -长3 48B C）的。 Athenian father of Western philosophy and student of Socrates, after whose death he traveled widely.雅典父亲的西方哲学和学生的苏格拉底，经过他的逝世，他走过的比较普遍。 On returning to Athens, he founded an Academy, where he taught until he died.回雅典，他创立了一个学院，在那里他教导，直到他去世。 His writings are in the form of dialogues between Socrates and other Athenians.他的著作是在形式之间的对话，苏格拉底和其他雅典人。 Many of Plato's views are set forth in The Republic, where an ideal state postulates philosopher kings, specially trained at the highest levels of moral and mathematical knowledge.许多柏拉图的观点阐述了中华民国，而一个理想的状态假设哲学家国王，受过专门训练，在最高水平的道德和数学知识。 Plato's other works analyzed moral virtues, the nature of knowledge, and the immortality of the soul.柏拉图的其他作品分析，道德品德，知识性质和不朽的灵魂。 His views on cosmology strongly influenced the next two thousand years of scientific thinking.他的观点对宇宙论的强烈影响未来二千年的科学思想。
Plotinus 普罗提诺
(205 - 270). （ 205 -2 70） 。 Egyptian-born founder of Neoplatonism, who synthesized the ideas of Plato and other Greek philosophers.出生于埃及的创始人neoplatonism ，他们合成的思路，柏拉图和其他希腊哲学家。 Plotinus believed all reality is caused by a series of outpourings (called emanations) from the divine source.普罗提诺认为所有的现实是，造成了一系列的澎湃（所谓emanations ） ，从神源。 Although not himself a Christian, he was a major influence on Christianity.虽然不是自己是一个基督徒，他是一个极为重大的影响基督教。
Rousseau, Jean Jacques 卢梭，让雅克
(1712 - 78). （ 1712 -7 8） 。 Swiss-French thinker, born in Geneva.瑞士和法国思想家，出生于日内瓦。 Rousseau has been enormously influential in political philosophy, educational theory, and the Romantic movement.卢梭一直有很大的影响力，在政治哲学，教育理论，及浪漫的运动。 In The Social Contract (1762), he viewed governments as being expressions of the people's "general will," or rational men's choice for the common good.在社会契约论（ 1762 ） ，他认为，各国政府为表达人民的"总意志"或理性男人的选择，谋求共同利益。 Rousseau emphasized man's natural goodness.卢梭强调人的自然善。
Russell, Bertrand 罗素，贝特朗
(1872 - 1970). （ 1872 -1 970） 。 English philosopher and logician influential as an agnostic and a pacifist.英国哲学家和逻辑有影响力作为一个不可知论和一个和平主义者。 Early work with Alfred North Whitehead gave birth to modern logic.早期工作与阿尔弗雷德北白石诞生了现代逻辑。 Russell changed his views numerous times but always sought to establish philosophy, especially epistemology, as a science.罗素改变了他的意见，多次，但总是设法建立哲学，特别是认识论，作为一门科学。
Santayana, George 塔亚纳，佐治。
(1863 - 1952). （ 1863 -1 952） 。 Spanish-born American philosopher and poet; a student of William James.西班牙出生的美国哲学家和诗人;学生威廉詹姆斯。 Santayana attempted to reconcile Platonism and materialism, studied how reason works, and found "animal faith," or impulse, to be the basis of reason and belief.塔亚纳试图调和柏拉图主义和唯物主义，研究如何理由工程，并发现"动物信仰" ，或者冲动，要根据理性和信念。
Sartre, Jean-Paul 萨特，让-保罗
(1905 - 80). （ 1905年-8 0） 。 French philosopher, novelist, and dramatist; one of the founders of existentialism.法国哲学家，小说家，戏剧家;创始国之一的存在。 Sartre was a Marxist through much of his life.萨特是一个马克思主义的，透过他的大部分生活。 He held that man is "condemned to be free" and to bear the responsibility of making free choices.他认为，男子已是"千夫所指获得自由" ，并要承担的责任作出自由选择。
Schopenhauer, Arthur 叔本华，亚瑟。
(1788 - 1860). （ 1788 -1 860） 。 German post-Kantian philosopher who held that although irrational will is the driving force in human affairs, it is doomed not to be satisfied.德国后康德哲学家，他们认为，尽管非理性的，将是动力，在人类事务的，是注定不能得到满足。 He believed that only art and contemplation could offer escape from determinism and pessimism.他认为，只有艺术和沉思可以提供摆脱宿命论和悲观主义。 Schopenhauer strongly influenced Nietzsche, Freud, Tolstoy, Proust, and Thomas Mann.叔本华的强烈影响尼采，弗洛伊德，托尔斯泰，普鲁斯特，托马斯曼。
Scotus, John Duns scotus ，约翰duns
(c. 1266 - 1308). （长1266 -1 308） 。 Scottish-born Scholastic philosopher who tried to integrate Aristotelian ideas into Christian theology.苏格兰籍的学术哲学家试图整合亚里士多德的思想统一到基督教神学。 Scotus emphasized that all things depend not just on God's intellect but on divine will as well. scotus强调说，所有的事情要靠不仅是对上帝的智力，但对神的意志为好。
Smith, Adam 史密斯，亚当
(1723 - 1790). （ 1723 -1 790） 。 Scottish philosopher and economist.苏格兰哲学家和经济学家。 He believed that if government left the marketplace to its own devices, an "invisible hand" would guarantee that the results would benefit the populace.他认为，如果政府在离开市场，以自己的设备，是一个"看不见的手"将保证这些成果将惠及百姓。 Smith has had enormous influence on economists into the present day.史密斯已经拥有巨大影响力的经济学家到现在的一天。
Socrates 苏格拉底
(464 - 399 BC). （ 464 -3 99B C）的。 Athenian philosopher who allegedly wrote down none of his views, supposedly from his belief that writing distorts ideas.雅典哲学家据说写下来，没有他的意见，理应由他的信仰写歪曲的想法。 His chief student, Plato, is the major source of knowledge of what is known of his life.他的主要学生，柏拉图，主要来源是知识，什么是众所周知的了他的命。 Socrates questioned Athenians about their moral, political, and religious beliefs, as depicted in Plato's dialogues; his questioning technique, called dialectic, has greatly influenced western philosophy.苏格拉底的质疑，雅典人对他们的道德，政治，宗教信仰不同，所描绘的柏拉图的对话，他的问话技巧，所谓辩证，极大地影响了西方哲学。 Socrates is alleged to have said that "the unexamined life is not worth living."苏格拉底被控犯有说： " unexamined生命是不值得活" 。 In 399 BC, he was brought to trial on charges of corrupting the youth and religious heresy.在公元前399 ，他被送上法庭受审，罪名是腐蚀青年和宗教异端。 Sentenced to die, he drank poison.判处死了，他喝了毒药。
Spinoza, Benedict (Baruch) 斯宾诺莎，本笃（ baruch ）
(1623 - 77). （ 1623 -7 7） 。 Dutch-born philosopher expelled from the Amsterdam Jewish community for heresy in 1656; he was attacked by Christian theologians 14 years later.荷兰出生的哲学家开除阿姆斯特丹犹太社区为异端，在1656年，他被攻击的基督教神学家14年之后。 In Ethics, Spinoza presents his views in a mathematical system of deductive reasoning.在伦理，斯宾诺莎提出他的看法，在一个数学系统的演绎推理。 A proponent of monism, he held-in contrast to Descartes-that mind and body are aspects of a single substance, which he called God or nature.主张一元论，他持相反的，以笛卡尔，即身体和精神方面的一种物质，即他所谓的上帝或性质。
Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet) 伏尔泰（弗朗索瓦玛丽阿鲁埃）
(1694 - 1778). （ 1694 -1 778） 。 French philosopher, essayist, and historian; one of the major thinkers of the Enlightenment.法国哲学家，散文家，史学家，其中最重要的思想家的启示。 A Deist who was anti-Christian, Voltaire widely advocated tolerance of liberal ideas and called for positive social action.一戴斯特谁是反基督教，伏尔泰广泛提倡宽容的，自由的思想和要求，积极的社会行动。 His novel Cyandide is a parody of the optimism of Leibniz.他的小说cyandide是一个模仿乐观莱布尼兹。
Whitehead, Alfred North 白石，阿尔弗雷德北
(1861 - 1947). （ 1861年-1 947年） 。 British philosopher and mathematician who worked with Bertrand Russell.英国哲学家和数学家，他与罗素。 Whitehead tried to integrate twentieth-century physics into a metaphysics of nature.白石试图整合二十世纪物理学成为一个形而上学的性质。
William of Ockham (Occam) 威廉的ockham （的Occam ）
(c. 1285 - c. 1349). （第1285长-长1 349） 。 Franciscan monk and important English theologian and philosopher.方济会修士和重要的英语神学家和哲学家。 In his nominalism, he opposed much of the thought of St. Thomas Aquinas and of medieval Aristotelianism; he also rejected the Pope's power in the secular realm.在他的唯名，他反对大量的思想多瑪斯和中世纪的亚里士多德，他也拒绝了教皇的权力，在世俗的境界。

Famous Quotes著名行情

How to Argue Logically如何争辩逻辑

We like to think that we speak logically all the time, but we are aware that we sometimes use illogical means to persuade others of our point of view. In the heat of an impassioned argument, or when we are afraid our disputant has a stronger case, or when we don't quite have all the facts we'd like to have, we are prone to engage in faulty processes of reasoning, using arguments we hope will appear sound.我们喜欢认为我们说话逻辑上的全部时间，但我们都知道，我们有时会使用不符合逻辑的手段来说服别人，我们的观点来看， 在激烈的一个慷慨激昂的论调，又或者当我们是怕我们disputant具有较强案，又或者当我们不太有全部的事实，我们希望有，我们很容易进行故障过程中的推理，用的论据，我们希望会出现声音。

Such defective arguments are called fallacies by philosophers who, starting with Aristotle, have catalogued and classified these fallacious arguments. There are now over 125 separate fallacies, most with their own impressive-sounding names, many of them in Latin.这种有缺陷的论调是所谓的谬论，由哲学家们，从亚里士多德，有编目，并把这些似是而非的论点。 目前有超过125个独立的谬论，大多数都带有自己的令人印象深刻的冠冕堂皇的名字，他们中的许多人在拉丁语。

Some arguments have easily recognizable defects.有些论点很容易辨认的缺点。 For instance, in the argument ad hominem, a person's views are criticized because of a logically irrelevant personal defect: "You can't take Smith's advice on the stock market; he's a known philanderer."例如，在争论专案hominem ，一个人的意见是批评，因为对一个逻辑无关的个人缺陷： "你不能以史密斯的意见，对股票市场，他的一个已知philanderer " 。 In the genetic fallacy, something is mistakenly reduced to its origins: "We know that emotions are nothing more than physiology; after all, medical research has shown emotions involve the secretion of hormones."在遗传谬论的东西，是错误地削减至其起源： "我们都知道，情绪的事情莫过于生理学;毕竟，医学研究表明，情绪涉及分泌的荷尔蒙" 。 Another illogical argument is named for the erroneous thinking a wagering person may fall prey to, the gambler's fallacy (also called the Monte Carlo fallacy ): "I'm betting on heads; it's got to come up since we've just had nine straight tails."另一种不合逻辑的说法是命名为错误思想作为下注的人可小心受骗， 赌徒的谬论 （又称蒙特卡罗谬论 ）说： "我赌头，它的得来了，因为我们刚刚经历了9次尾巴" 。

Some fallacies may not be recognized as erroneous reasoning because they are such commonly used forms of argument.一些谬论可能不会被承认为错误的推理，因为他们是这样的常用形式的论点。 For instance, if we say, "I'm sure my cold is due to the weather; I started sneezing right after it went from 60 degrees to 31 degrees in three hours," we are committing the fallacy with the Latin name of post hoc ergo propter hoc ("after this, therefore because of this").比如，如果我们说， "我敢肯定，我的冷，是由于天气原因，我开始打喷嚏权后，它从60度至31度，在三个多小时， "我们都是犯下的谬误与拉丁语名称事后号ETM propter责 （ "在此之后，因此，因为这个" ） 。 Many a political argument exemplifies the fallacy of arguing in a circle ; for instance: "Only wealthy men are capable of leading the country; after all, leadership can be learned only if you have had money to exercise power."许多政治论据充分体现了谬误的争论，在一个圆 ;举例说： "只有一些有钱的男人有能力带领国家;毕竟，领导可以学到只有当你拥有了金钱，以行使权力" 。 Many prejudicial or stereotypical arguments commit the fallacy of division , or of applying to the part what may be true of the whole: "North Dakota has wide-open spaces; since Jack's farm is there, it must be quite large."许多偏见或刻板的论点犯下的谬误部 ，或申请部分，有什么可能是事实的全部： "北达科他州有广泛的游憩用地;以来，杰克的农场已经存在，它必须相当大的" 。 The converse of this is the fallacy of composition , where properties of the parts are erroneously attributed to the whole: "Every apple on this tree is rotten; therefore, the tree itself is hopelessly diseased."相反的，这是谬误的成分 ，而性能的部件都是错误归咎于整个： "每个苹果上，这树是烂，所以说，树本身是没有希望的病" 。

It may be a surprise to realize that some widely accepted forms of argument are just as fallacious as the most logically defective reasoning.它可能是一个惊喜认识到，一些被广泛接受的形式的说法，只是作为的谬误，作为最有缺陷的逻辑推理。 When we appeal to the beliefs or behavior of the majority to prove the truth of something, we are committing the fallacy of consensus gentium : "Imbibing alcohol cannot be bad for people, since all cultures studied have used alcohol."当我们在此呼吁的信念或行为多数，以证明事实真相的东西，我们犯下的谬误共识gentium ： " imbibing酒精不能坏的人，因为所有的文化研究，用酒精" 。 Or consider the person who argues that "Tragedy is the highest form of literature; after all, didn't Aristotle consider it such?"或考虑的人争辩说， "悲剧是最高形式的文献;毕竟，没有亚里士多德认为这种" ？ This is a form of the fallacy of arguing from authority .这也是另一种形式的谬误的争论，从权威 。 There is also the fallacy of ignoratio elenchus , which has nothing to do with ignorance; its name means that the point made is irrelevant to the issue at hand, as in the untenable view of a lawyer who says, "Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, you cannot convict my client of manslaughter while driving under the influence; after all, advertisements for alcohol exist everywhere in our culture."也有一些谬论ignoratio elenchus ，这完全与无知，它的名字是指提出的一点是风马牛不相及的问题，另一方面，由于在站不住脚的看法一名律师说， "女士们，先生们的陪审团，你不能定罪，我的当事人的过失杀人罪，而驾驶的影响下，毕竟，广告酒精存在，无处不在，我们的文化" 。

Fallacy谬论

{fal'-uh-see} （ fal' -嗯见）

In logic, a fallacy is a form of reasoning that is illogical or that violates the rules of valid argumentation.在逻辑上，一个谬论是一种形式的推理是不合逻辑的，或违反规则的有效论证。 A formal fallacy makes strict violations of the rules of logic.一个正式的谬论，使得严格的违反规则的逻辑。 An informal fallacy does not violate the rules of logic, but it violates the rules of valid reasoning or arrives at unsound conclusions, because of unsound reasoning.一个非正式的谬论，并不违反规则的逻辑，但它违反了规则的有效推理或到达不完善的结论，因为不健全的推理。

A common formal fallacy involves affirming the consequent or denying the antecedent in hypothetical reasoning.一个共同的正式谬论涉及申明后果或否认前因在假设的推理。 That is, if A, then B, affirming B as the proof of A, or denying A as the basis for denying B. In either case, it does not follow that the affirmation or the denial proves what is claimed.这就是，如果有，那么， b ，申明B作为证明，或否定并以此为基础否定乙，在这两种情况下，这并不表示肯定或否定证明了什么是声称。 Thus, if all Americans are bald (A), then all Americans require no hairdressers (B)--the affirmation of A, that is, saying it is true, does not prove B; neither does the denial of B prove the denial of A.因此，如果所有美国人都秃（一） ，然后，所有美国人都无需美发师（二） -誓词一个，那就是他说，这是事实，并不能证明B组;也不否认的B证明剥夺答：

Two other kinds of formal fallacies that are important are the argument from the undistributed middle and the conversion of a universal positive proposition.其他两个种正式的谬论，这是很重要的论点，从未分配中，并转化率一个普遍的积极主张。 In the first, it is argued that "all A is B" and "all C is B"; therefore, "all A is C."在第一，它是争辩说， "所有A是B "和"所有C是B " ，因此， "所有A是长" If "Americans" is substituted for "A", "human beings" for "B", and "Hungarians" for "C", it is easily seen that the argument is fallacious.如果是"美国人" ，是用以替代的" A " ， "人"为"乙" ， "匈牙利人"的" C " ，这是很容易看到其论点是谬误的。 In the other case, it is argued that if "all A is B," then "all B is A"; this is obviously fallacious if the same substitutions are made.而在另一案中，有论者认为，如果"一个是B " ，那么"所有B是一个" ，这显然是强词夺理，如果同时替换是发了言。

Because informal fallacies occur much more frequently in ordinary discussions, in political speeches, and in advertising, they are, in some ways, more important.因为非正式的谬论，发生更为频繁，在一般的讨论中，在政治演说，并在广告，他们是，在某些方面，更重要的。 Some of these fallacies are a result of the ambiguity of the terms used; people often slip unconsciously from one meaning of a term to another.部分这些歪理邪说的结果之一是含糊不清的条款及使用情况;人们常常不自觉地滑，从一个意义的，任期到另一个地方。 Other major informal fallacies are the ignoratio elenchi, that is, arguing for something different from the question asked; and the tu quoque argument, in which an unsound argument is justified by claiming the unsoundness of another.其他主要非正规谬论，是ignoratio elenchi ，即是争论一番，从不同的问题，问及涂太争论，其中一个不健全的说法是有道理的声称不健全的另一个。 These soon degenerate into the argument ad hominem, in which the argument of an opponent is countered by pointing to his or her personal faults rather than by considering the substance of the argument; and the argument from authority, which appeals to famous or important people who agree with a particular point of view.这些即将沦为论点专案hominem ，其中争论的一个对手反击，并指出他或她个人的故障，而不是考虑物质的论点和论据，由管理局管理，呼吁知名或重要的人同意特定的观点。

Richard H Popkin理查德h Popkin还

Bibliography 参考书目
Engel, S. Morris, With Good Reason: An Introduction to Informal Fallacies, 3d ed.恩格尔，美国莫里斯，有很好的理由：简要介绍了非正式的谬论，三维海关。 (1985); Fearnside, W. Ward, and Holther, William B., Fallacy: The Counterfeit of Argument (1959). （ 1985年） ; fearnside ，总统病房，并holther ，威廉乙，谬论：伪造的说法（ 1959 ） 。

Also, see:此外，见：
Philosophical Terms 哲学术语

This subject presentation in the original English language这一主题演讲，在原有的英语

Send an e-mail question or comment to us: E-mail邮件发送问题或意见给我们： 电子邮箱

The main BELIEVE web-page (and the index to subjects) is at http://mb-soft.com/believe/beliecha.html主要相信网页（和索引科目） ，是在http://mb-soft.com/believe/beliecha.html