Moses initiated Judaism about 1600 BC.摩西发起犹太教约公元前1600个。
The religion and culture of the Jewish people.宗教与文化的犹太人民。 Jewish civilization includes historical, social, and political dimensions in addition to the religious.犹太文明，包括历史，社会，和政治层面的，除了宗教。 The word "Judaism" derives from the Greek Ioudaismos, a term first used in the intertestamental period by Greek speaking Jews to distinguish their religion from hellenism (see 2 Macc. 2:21; 8:1; 14:38).用"犹太教"来自希腊语ioudaismos ，这个词最初是用来在intertestamental期希腊语谈到犹太人分辨他们的信仰，从希腊（见2排雷。 2时21分; 8:1 ; 14:38 ） 。 In the NT the word appears twice (Gal. 1:13 - 14) in reference to Paul's prior consuming devotion to Jewish faith and life.在新台币字出现两次（ gal. 1:13 -1 4） ，在谈到保罗先前消费献身犹太人的信仰和生活。
Along the way Jewish religion took on new teachings and practices.在前进的道路上的犹太宗教了新的教义和做法。 But with the lengthy development of Judaism and its many changes it is incorrect to posit, as some have done, that Jewish history produced two separate religions: an OT religion of Israel and the postexilic religion of Judaism.但随着漫长的发展，犹太教和它的许多变化，这是不正确要把象有些国家那样，认为犹太人的历史产生了两个不同的宗教：优选论宗教的以色列和postexilic宗教的犹太教。 Despite the shifting phases of its history, the essence of the religious teaching of Judaism has remained remarkably constant, firmly rooted in the Hebrew Scriptures (OT).尽管移阶段的历史，本质上的宗教教职犹太教却始终保持恒定，牢牢植根于希伯莱经文（酒店） 。 Judaism is a religion of ethical monotheism.犹太教是一个宗教的伦理一神教。 For centuries many Jews have sought to distill its essential features from one biblical verse that calls Israel "to act justly, to love mercy and to walk humbly with your God" (Mic. 6:8).数百年来，许多犹太人已经寻求蒸馏及其本质特征之一，从圣经诗句呼吁以色列" ，以公正的行为，以爱心慈悲与步行谦卑与你的上帝" （ mic. 6时08分） 。
| BELIEVE 相信 Religious 宗教 Information 资讯 Source 源 web-site 网址： |
| Our List of 1,000 Religious Subjects 我们所列出的1000名宗教科目 |
| E-mail 电子邮箱 |
There was one thing Israel carried to Babylon and clung to dearly.有一件事以色列进行到巴比伦和醉心代价。 It was the law, the Torah, for by it Israel was assured of its divine calling and mission.这是法，诵读经文，因为它是由以色列保证其神圣的呼唤和使命感。 In the fifth century the "father of Judaism," Ezra the scribe, enacted religious reforms by appealing to the Torah.在五世纪之父"的犹太教， "以斯拉文士，制定宗教改革诉诸律法。 The priesthood was purified and mixed marriages dealt with as the principles of the law became applied to every detail of life.神职人员纯化和异族通婚的处理作为法律原则，成为适用于每一个细节的生活方式。 Gradually many Jews came to believe that here lay the only real proof of who was a true Jew: vigorous, unflinching obedience to the teachings of Torah.逐步许多犹太人相信在这里奠定只有这样，才能真正证明谁是真正的犹太人：充满活力，坚定不移地服从教义的律法。
Scribes became the priestly interpreters of the Torah, setting forth their own authoritative teachings.文士成为司铎口译员的律法，又提出自己的权威的教义。 By the second century BC the Pharisees taught that the oral law carried the same authority as the law of Moses.由公元前二世纪法利教授说，口腔法进行了同样的权威，摩西的律法。 Later Jesus denied that the traditions of men were equal in authority to the written law (Mark 7:1 - 23); in addition, Paul denied that man could be justified before God by perfect obedience to that law (Gal. 3).后来耶稣否认传统的男子平等的，在权力，以书面法（马克7:1 -2 3） ;此外，保罗否认这名男子可能会基于上帝面前，由完美服从法律（ g al.3 ） 。
The destruction of the temple in 70 AD and the scattering of thousands of Jews from the land brought a sudden demise to the priesthood.摧毁庙宇在70个AD和散射的数以千计的犹太人从土地带来的突然消亡，以成为神职人员。 Johanan ben Zakkai, a Pharisee, was soon permitted by the Romans to open an academy at Jabneh.约哈难奔zakkai ， pharisee ，很快就被允许由罗马开一家学院在贾卜奈。 He took it upon himself to install rabbis as the keepers and legislators of Torah.他上台后，它自己安装拉比为饲养者和立法者的律法。 By word of mouth the rabbis passed their teachings from generation to generation until the oral law (Mishnah) was written down about 200 AD, Rabbi Judah ha - Nasi its chief editor.通过口碑相传拉比通过自己的教诲，一代一代传下去，直到口腔法（ mishnah ）写下来约200专案，拉比犹大公顷-纳斯总编辑。 By 500 AD the Talmud was completed with the issuing of the Gemara, a rabbinical commentary on the Mishnah.由公元500犹太法典完成发行的gemara ，犹太教评论mishnah 。 The Talmud contains more than 6,000 folio pages and references to more than 2,000 scholar - teachers.犹太法典载有6000多页码的页面，并参照2000多名学者-教师。 It became the basic document of rabbinic Judaism, and still holds a major place in shaping Jewish thought.它成为基本文件rabbinic犹太教，并仍持有主要发生在塑造犹太人的思想。
In the Mishnah (Abot 1:2) one sees the broad philosophy that governed the minds of the early rabbis:在mishnah （ abot 1:2 ） ，一看到广大哲学治头脑早期拉比：
"By three things is the world sustained: "的三件事，是世界上持续：
This basic teaching is further underscored by the threefold function of the synagogue as a "house of study" (for learning of Torah), "house of prayer" (for worship of God), and "house of assembly" (for the care of community needs).这一基本教学是进一步突出了三方面功能的犹太教堂是一个"家学" （学习的律法） ， "房子的祈祷" （敬拜神） ，和"众议院大会" （为照顾社会需要） 。
Contemporary Judaism often speaks of four foundational pillars of the Jewish faith, each interacting as a major force as part of the covenant: (1) The Torah, always a living law as the written Torah is understood in light of the oral Torah; (2) God, a unity (one), spiritual (not a body), and eternal; (3) The people (Israelites Jews), called into being by God as members of one family, a corporate personality, a community of faith; and (4) The land (known today as Eretz Yisrael), a bond going back to Abraham, the "father of the Hebrew people" (Gen. 17:7 - 8).当代犹太教常常讲的四个基础性的支柱，信仰犹太教，每一个作为互动的一支重要力量，作为该公约： （ 1 ）诵读经文，永远活法作为书面律法了解，在轻的口头律法; （ 2 ）的上帝，一个统一（ 1 ） ，精神（而不是一个机构） ，和永恒; （ 3 ）人（以色列人犹太人） ，所谓成上帝，因为大家的一个家庭，一个企业的个性，一个社会的信念; （ 4 ）土地（称为今天eretz选票） ，债券回到亚伯拉罕之父"的希伯来人" （创17时07 -8 ） 。
In its modern expression Judaism is also shaped by the following traditional beliefs:在其现代表达犹太教也是塑造出来的下列传统信仰：
(1) Man is pivotal in the universe. He sees himself as partner with God in the unending process of creation. （ 1 ） 人是关键在宇宙中，他认为自己是合伙人与上帝，在永无止境的过程中的创造。 In rabbinic thought, "God needs man as much as man needs God."在rabbinic思想， "上帝需要人之多男人需要上帝" 。
(2) Man is a responsible moral agent, fully accountable for his acts. He is free to shape his own destiny. （ 2 ） 男子，是一个负责任的道德代理人，全面负责他的行为，他是免费的，以形成自己的命运。
(3) Human progress is possible as man realizes the great potential within him. The nature of man is basically good, or neutral, free from the encumbrance of original sin. （ 3 ） 人力取得进展是可能的，由于人，实现了巨大的潜力万分。性质的人基本上是好的，或中性的，不受该抵押权的原罪。 Thus man may be optimistic and hopeful about his future.因此，男方也可以乐观，并希望他的未来。
(4) "This - worldliness" is a distinguishing mark of Judaism. The Hebrew Scriptures focus more on earth and man than upon heaven and God. （ 4 ） "这-世俗" ，是一个区分的标志犹太教。希伯莱经文更专注于地球与男子比后，天堂和上帝。 Hence, lengthy speculation about the afterlife and otherworldy realities has never occupied a major position in Jewish thought.因此，长时间的猜测来世和otherworldy现实从来没有占据主要地位，在犹太人的思想。
(5) All of life must be regarded as sacred. Man is to seek to imitate God in sanctifying his every action. （ 5 ） 所有的生命必须被视为神圣的，人是力求模仿上帝在sanctifying他的每一个行动。 Time must be imbued with the seeds of eternity.时间必须处处洋溢着种子的永恒。
(6) Man is to pursue peace, justice, and righteousness. Salvation is dependent upon the betterment of society through good deeds. （ 6 ） 人，是为了实现和平，正义和正气。救恩是取决于改善社会的好人好事。 Historically, Jews have seen the Messiah as God's anointed human representative (not a God - man) who would usher in a golden age of societal and spiritual redemption.历史上，犹太人看到弥赛亚，因为神的不信任人的代表（不是神-男子） ，将迎来一个黄金时代的社会性和精神救赎。 Today, however, Reform Judaism teaches that the Messianic Age will appear when humankind collectively, by its acts, reaches a level of true enlightenment, peace, and justice.然而，今天，改革犹太教教导我们，救世主的时代将出现的时候，人类的集体中，其行为，达到某种程度的真正的启示，和平，自由和正义。
MR
Wilson华礼信
(Elwell Evangelical Dictionary)
（ Elwell宣布了福音字典）
Bibliography:
参考书目：
L Baeck, The Essence of Judaism; H
Danby, The Mishnah; H Donin, To Be a Jew; EJ, X; A Hertzberg, ed., Judaism; GF
Moore, Judaism; M Steinberg, Basic Judaism; L Trepp, Judaism: Development and
Life.升baeck ，本质上的犹太教; h danby ， mishnah ; h donin ，是一个犹太人;对EJ ，第十;
hertzberg ，版，犹太教;绿摩尔，犹太教;米史坦柏格，基本犹太教;升特雷普，犹太教：发展和生活的情况。
Several distinct approaches to Judaism presently exist.几个不同的途径，以犹太教目前存在的。
There are currently around 1,500,000 Conservative Jews in the United States, worshipping in 762 Synagogues.目前还有约1500000保守的犹太人，在美国，崇拜，在762个犹太教堂。
Hasidic Orthodox (Hasidism) opposes all changes or innovation in dress, speech and education.哈西德派正统（ hasidism ）反对一切改变或创新，在着装，语言及教育。 The German and western European is less severe, adopting some modern changes.德国和西欧是较不严重，采用一些现代的转变。
There are currently around 1,075,000 Orthodox Jews in the United States, worshipping in 800 Synagogues.目前还有约1075000正统犹太教徒，在美国，崇拜，在800个犹太教堂。
Mordecai Menahem Kaplan (1881-1983) was an American rabbi who founded Reconstructionism, a movement based on the view that Judaism is essentially a religious civilization. mordecai menahem卡普兰（ 1881年至1983年）是美国拉比创办人reconstructionism ，一个运动的基础上，认为犹太教基本上是一个宗教文明。
Kaplan was born in Švenèionys, Lithuania.卡普兰出生于švenèionys ，立陶宛。 At the age of eight, he was brought to the United States.在八岁那年，他被带到了美国。 After studying at the College of the City of New York and at Columbia University, he was ordained (1902) at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, where he later became principal (1909) of the teachers institute, dean (1931), and dean emeritus (1947).后就读于大学的纽约市，并在哥伦比亚大学，他被祝圣（ 1902年）在犹太神学院的美国，在那里他后来成为校长（ 1909年）的教师学院院长（ 1931 ） ，和院长名誉（ 1947年） 。
In 1916 he established the Jewish Center in New York City, where he served as rabbi until 1922.在1916年他成立了犹太中心，在纽约市，在那里他担任拉比，直到1922年。 He then established the Society for the Advancement of Judaism, which became the core of Reconstructionism.他随后成立了社会的进步犹太教，从而成为核心reconstructionism 。 The movement was defined in the Reconstructionist, a periodical he edited, that was dedicated to "the advancement of Judaism as a religious civilization, to the upbuilding of Eretz Yisrael [the land of Israel] as the spiritual center of the Jewish People, and to the furtherance of universal freedom, justice, and peace."这项运动被界定在重建主义，期刊，他主编的，是献给"提高犹太教作为一个宗教文明，给的建立的eretz选票[以色列土地]作为精神中心的犹太人民，并以推进全民自由，正义与和平" 。 Among Kaplan's writings that define the movement are Judaism as a Civilization (1934) and The Religion of Ethical Nationhood (1970).其中卡普兰的著作界定运动是犹太教作为一种文明（ 1934年）和宗教伦理建国（ 1970年） 。
There are currently around 65,000 Reconstructionist Jews in the United States, worshipping in 100 Synagogues.目前共有约65000名犹太人重建主义，在美国，崇拜，在100个犹太教堂。
There are currently around 1,500,000 Reform Jews in the United States, worshipping in 896 Synagogues.目前还有约1500000改革的犹太人在美国，崇拜在896犹太教堂。
There are currently around 1,500 Karaite Jews in the United States, worshipping in two Synagogues.目前还有大约1500 karaite犹太人在美国，崇拜在两座犹太教堂。
There are also Liberal and Progressive wings of Judaism.此外，还有自由和进步的翅膀犹太教。
These numbers total approximately 4,140,000 Jews in the United States, although there are sources that give 6,015,000 as the total for North America (with around 70,000 in Canada.)这些数字总数约为414.0万犹太人，在美国，虽然有消息来源指出，给6015000由于总为北美（约70000加拿大） 。
Advanced Information 先进的信息
Judaism, the religion of the Jews, claims over 14 million adherents throughout the world.犹太教，宗教的犹太人，索赔超过1400万人的信徒遍及全世界。 It is the oldest living religion in the Western world.它是历史最悠久的宗教生活在西方世界。 Historically, Judaism served as the matrix for Christianity and Islam, the other two great monotheistic religions, which together with Judaism claim half the world's population as adherents.从历史上看，犹太教，作为基质，为基督教和伊斯兰教外，其他两个伟大的一神教，它连同犹太教索赔世界人口的一半，因为附和。
The beliefs of Judaism have never been formulated in an official creed; Judaism stresses conduct rather than doctrinal correctness. Its adherents have a considerable measure of latitude in matters of belief, especially concerning the messianic future and immortality.信仰犹太教从来没有制定正式的信条; 犹太教讲操守，而不是理论的正确性，其党羽有相当的自由度事项的信仰，尤其是关于救世主的前途和不朽。 Judaism is a this - world religion; its objective is a just and peaceful world order on earth.犹太教是这一点-世界宗教政策，其目标是建设一个正义与和平的世界秩序的地球。 This hope is assured by the belief that God is the Lord of history as well as of nature.这个希望是保证所信仰的神是耶和华的历史，以及自然的。
The basic source of Jewish belief is the Hebrew Bible (called the "Old Testament" by Christians), especially its first five books, called the Torah or the Pentateuch. The Torah was traditionally regarded as the primary revelation of God and his law to humanity; it is considered as valid for all time. 基本来源犹太信仰是希伯来语圣经（被称为"旧约全书"由基督徒） ，特别是其第一个五年的书籍，被称为律法或pentateuch 。律法是传统上被视为首要的启示上帝和他的律师给人类它被认为是适用于所有的时间。 Its laws were clarified and elaborated in the oral Torah, or the tradition of the elders, and were eventually written down in the Mishnah and Talmud. Thus, Judaism did not stop developing after the Bible was completed. The traditional Jewish prayer book is an important result of this process of development, reflecting the basic beliefs of Judaism as well as changes in emphasis in response to changing conditions.其法律澄清，并着重阐述了在口头诵读经文，或传统的长老，并最终被写在mishnah和犹太法典， 因此，犹太教并没有停止发展后，圣经已经完成。传统的犹太人祈祷书是一个重要的结果，这个发展过程中，反映基本信仰犹太教的变化，以及重点，以响应不断变化的条件。 During the Middle Ages, systematic codes of talmudic law were compiled.在中世纪的，有系统的工作守则talmudic法律汇编。 Jewish literature - legal, ethical, philosophic, mystical, and devotional - is virtually endless.犹太文学-法律，道德，哲学，神秘，灵修-几乎是无止境的。
Individual practices still widely observed include the dietary laws (Kosher); rules concerning the marital relationship, daily prayer, and study; and the recital of many blessings, especially before and after meals.个别做法仍然普遍观察到，包括饮食法（犹太教） ;规则关于婚姻关系，进行每天例行的祷告，并研究和演奏的许多祝福，尤其是之前和之后的饭菜。 The Sabbath and festivals are observed both in the home and in the Synagogue, a unique institution for prayer and instruction that became the model for the church in Christianity and for the mosque in Islam.安息日及节日都观察到，无论是在家里和犹太教堂，一个独特的机构，为祈祷，并指示说，成为榜样，让教会在基督教和清真寺伊斯兰教。 Traditionally observant Jews wear tefillin, or Phylacteries, on their forehead and left arm during morning prayers, and affix to their doorposts a mezuzah, a little box containing a parchment scroll inscribed with passages of the Torah that emphasize the unity of God, his providence, and the resulting duty of serving him.传统上观察入微的犹太人佩戴tefillin ，或phylacteries ，对他们的前额和左手臂在早上的祈祷，并追究其doorposts一mezuzah ，一个小盒子载有羊皮纸卷动刻通道的律法，强调团结的上帝，他的普罗维登斯，以及由此而来的责任，服务于他。 In accordance with biblical law, men wear a fringed shawl (tallith) during prayer.按照圣经的法律，男人穿摇曳披肩（ tallith ）在祷告。 Covering the head is a widespread custom.包括头部，是一个普遍的风俗。
The Jewish religious calendar, of Babylonian origin, consists of 12 lunar months, amounting to about 354 days.犹太宗教日历，巴比伦的起源，组成12个农历月，达3.54天。 Six times in a 19 year cycle a 13th month is added to adjust the calendar to the solar year. 6倍，在19年的周期第13个月是补充，调整日历向太阳年。 The day is reckoned from sunset to sunset.当天估计，从日落到日落。
The Sabbath, from sunset Friday to sunset Saturday, is observed by refraining from work and by attending a synagogue service.安息日，从周五日落至周六日落，是观察，不工作，并通过参加犹太教堂服务。 Friday evening is marked in the home by the lighting of a lamp or candles by the woman of the household, the recital of the kiddush (a ceremonial blessing affirming the sanctity of the day) over a cup of wine, and the blessing of children by parents.周五晚上，其标志是在家庭中由照明的油灯或蜡烛，由女的家庭，他演奏的kiddush （一礼仪祝福申明神圣不可侵犯的一天） ，一杯酒，并祝福孩子父母。 The end of the Sabbath is marked by parallel ceremonies called havdalah.年底安息日其标志是平行仪式所谓havdalah 。 Similar home ceremonies occur on the festivals.类似主页仪式出现了艺术节。
The holidays prescribed in the Torah are the two "days of awe," Rosh Hashanah (New Year) and Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), and three joyous festivals, Passover, Shavuoth (Feast of Weeks), and the Feast of Tabernacles.假期明在诵读经文，是两件"的日子，是义正词严的"羁绊hashanah （新的一年）和赎罪日（赎罪日） ，以及三项喜庆欢腾的节日，逾越节， shavuoth （七七节） ，和住棚节。 Later additions are the festive occasions of Chanukah and Purim, and the fast of the Ninth of Av (Tishah be - Av), commemorating the destruction of the Temple.后来加建了节日的chanukah和普林节，和快速的九届房室（ tishah -影音） ，纪念破坏了该庙。
On the 8th day after birth, male children are circumcised as a sign of the covenant with Abraham; the boy is named during the ceremony.对第8天以后出生，男性儿童都接受割礼，作为一种标志的内容与亚伯拉罕;男童是在命名仪式。 Girls are named at a synagogue service. At the age of 13, a boy is deemed responsible for performing the commandments (Bar Mitzvah). To mark his new status, the bar mitzvah takes part in the Bible readings during a synagogue service.女孩被点名在犹太教堂服务， 在年满13岁，一个男孩被认为是负责履行诫命（酒吧mitzvah ） ，以纪念他的新地位，大律师公会mitzvah参与圣经读，在一所犹太教堂服务。 (The synagogue service is sometimes popularly referred to as the bar mitzvah.) A similar ceremony for girls (bat mitzvah) is a recent innovation. Somewhat older is the confirmation ceremony for both sexes introduced by Reform Judaism; it is usually a class observance on or near Shavuoth. （犹太教堂服务有时是普遍被称为酒吧mitzvah ） 类似的仪式，为女童（蝙蝠mitzvah ）是一个最近的创新。稍为年长的是确认仪式，男女双方介绍了改革犹太教，它通常是一类遵守对或接近shavuoth 。
Judaism has characteristic, but not unparalleled, customs concerning marriage and death and mourning.犹太教有特色，但不是独一无二的，海关关于婚姻及死亡和哀悼。 The importance attached to recital of the Kaddish prayer by mourners dates from the Middle Ages.重视演奏的kaddish静默哀悼日期从中世纪。 The prayer itself is much older and was originally recited as the conclusion of a sermon; it is related in thought and language to the "Lord's Prayer" of Christians.祷告本身就是老得多，和原来背诵作为结论的说教，它是有关在思想和语言的"主祷文"的基督徒。 After the disasters during the First Crusade, the Jews of central and later eastern Europe introduced a memorial service on Yom Kippur and on other holidays; they also began to observe the anniversary of the death of parents.之后灾害在第一次十字军东征，犹太人中央和后来东欧地区推出了纪念服务赎罪日和其他节假日，他们也开始观察周年去世的父母。
Unparalleled in any other Near Eastern religion are Judaism's prohibition of images, observance of the Sabbath, dietary laws, legislation guaranteeing support of the poor as a matter of right, and protection of slaves and animals against cruelty. When a loose tribal confederation was replaced by a national state under Kings Saul and David a national Temple in Jerusalem helped unify the people spiritually. 无与伦比的，在其他任何附近的东方宗教，是犹太教的禁止图像，遵守安息日，饮食规律，保证立法的支持，扶贫作为一项权利，并保护奴隶，对动物的残忍，当一个松散的邦联部落取代一个民族国家根据国王扫罗和大卫全国第二圣殿有助于凝聚人们的心灵。 After the division of the kingdom following the death (c. 933) of Solomon, the northern kingdom of Israel also had national shrines.经过分工王国以下死亡（长933 ）索罗门，北方王国以色列，也有民族圣地。
This dramatized belief in one God and reduced the importance of sacrifice in the daily life of the worshiper.这生动地信仰一个真主，并减少了十分重要的牺牲，在日常生活中的worshiper 。 The gap left by the abolition of the local shrines was eventually filled by the establishment of the Synagogue, but there is no clear reference to this new institution until some four centuries later.留下的空缺，取消了地方神社最终被填补，由设立该犹太教堂，但没有明确提到这一新的机构，直到约四个世纪之后。 The most mature and eloquent expression of prophetic ideals is found in the recorded speeches of the later prophets, beginning in the 8th century BC with the prophet Amos.最成熟，并有力地表达了先知性的理想，被发现在该记录的发言后来先知，一开始在8世纪公元前与先知阿摩司。
Returning exiles were leaders in the revival of the Palestinian center (now confined to the area of the former southern kingdom of Judah) and the building of the Second Temple.回到流亡者领导人在恢复巴勒斯坦中心（目前仅限于该地区的前英国南部的犹大） ，并建设了第二圣殿。 The high priests usually served as official representatives to the Persian government and to the succeeding empires.高牧师通常充当官方代表向波斯语政府，并继任帝国。 In the middle of the 5th century BC, the final form was given to the Torah - in the opinion of many scholars, a composite of laws, narratives, and poems dating from different periods, but with beginnings going back to Moses; and the people formally accepted the Torah as the rule for their life.在中东的公元前5世纪，但最终的形式是向律法-在民意的许多学者，一个综合的法律，叙述，和诗歌约会，从不同的历史时期，但随着开端回到摩西;和人民正式接受律法作为统治他们的生活。 Shortly thereafter the Samaritans broke away from the main body of Judaism; small numbers of this sect still survive.此后不久撒玛利亚会脱离主体的犹太教小号码本节还有生存的空间。
During this period, prophecy waned and finally disappeared, but the writings of the great prophets were compiled and accepted as sacred literature.在此期间，预言减弱并最终消失，但写的伟大先知被汇编和接受为神圣的文学作品。 Other books were composed - notably, wisdom literature, such as Job - and many of them were eventually included in the Bible.其他书籍则组成-值得注意的是，智慧文学，如职业-他们中的许多人最终被列入圣经。
Some elements of Persian religion were incorporated into Judaism: a more elaborate doctrine of Angels; the figure of Satan; and a system of beliefs concerning the end of time, including a predetermined scheme of world history, a final judgment (Last Judgment), and the Resurrection of the dead.一些元素的波斯宗教被纳入犹太教：一项更为详尽的学说的天使;数字撒旦制度;信念关于结束时间，其中包括一个预定的计划，世界史，最后判决（最后的审判） ，以及死人复活。 These ideas were expounded in many visionary documents called apocalypses; none of them was included in the Hebrew Bible except the Book of Daniel (Apocalypse Eschatology).这些设想进行了阐述，在许多富有远见的文件，所谓的启示;他们没有被列在希伯来语圣经除了这本书的丹尼尔（末世启示录） 。
The Greek language and customs also affected Palestinian Jewry; the Jewish emphasis on study may be in part the result of Greek influence.希腊语言和习俗也影响了巴勒斯坦犹太人;犹太人侧重于研究，有可能是部分的结果希腊语的影响力。 But while many Jews were attracted to pagan customs and attitudes, the majority resisted these trends.不过，虽然许多犹太人被吸引到异教习俗和态度，绝大多数的抵制这些趋势。 The attempt of the Seleucid king Antiochus IV to impose the Greek religion by force aroused open rebellion led by the Maccabees, a Jewish priestly family.企图的seleucid国王安提阿古四强加给希腊的宗教力量，引起了公开叛乱，由马加比，一个犹太圣家族。 During the short period of Judean independence under the Maccabees (also called Hasmoneans) a movement of proselytizing began that was apparently not organized but was nevertheless energetic.因为在短期内的朱迪亚独立下马加比（又称哈斯摩年王朝" ）运动的传教活动，开始说，显然是没有组织的，但尽管如此，精力充沛。 Large numbers of persons, disillusioned with the old pagan cults, adopted Judaism formally or attached themselves unofficially to the synagogue.大批的人，幻灭与老异教邪教，犹太教通过正式或附上自己内定到犹太教堂。
The earliest Christians differed from other Jews chiefly in their belief that Jesus was the messiah.最早的基督徒不同于其他的犹太人首领，在他们相信耶稣是弥赛亚。 But under the leadership of Saint Paul and others, gentile Christianity soon became dominant, and the break between the two religions became complete.但领导下，圣保罗和其他人， gentile基督教很快就成了优势，并打破两国之间的宗教，成为完整的。 When the Roman Empire became officially Christian in the 4th century AD, the Jews became subject to many discriminatory laws, including a prohibition against seeking or even accepting converts.当罗马帝国正式成为基督徒在4世纪广告中，犹太人成为受到很多歧视性的法律，包括禁止在寻求或接受，甚至转换。
In the 4th century, religious and legal leadership was assumed more and more by the Babylonian center of learning; and from the 5th century, the Babylonian Talmud was generally accepted as the authoritative source of law.在4世纪，宗教和法律的领导，是假设，越来越多地依靠巴比伦的学习中心，以及从公元5世纪，巴比伦塔木德经被普遍接受，作为权威的法源。 Thereafter world leadership remained with the Babylonian scholars; the heads of the academies, called Gaonim ("excellencies"), provided information and advice on legal and other questions to the Diaspora communities.此后世界领导依然是巴比伦的学者;元首的院校，所谓gaonim （下称"阁下" ） ，提供信息和咨询，法律和其他问题，以散居社区。 In the 8th century, the sect of Karaites broke away, rejecting tradition and rabbinic authority, and seeking to live by the letter of the biblical law.在8世纪，该教派的卡拉打破，拒绝传统和rabbinic管理局，并寻求生活所信的圣经中的规定。 After four centuries of vigorous activity, the sect declined; today only remnants survive.经过四个世纪的激烈活动中，第一节下降，今天只有残留物的生存空间。
Although the first important Jewish philosopher was the Gaon Saadia in Baghdad (10th century), nearly all of his important successors were of Spanish origin, including the preeminent Maimonides.虽然第一个重要的犹太哲学家是gaon saadia在巴格达（ 10世纪） ，几乎所有的重要继任者的西班牙语出身，其中包括杰出的迈蒙尼德。 These philosophers were scholastics, like their Muslim and Christian contemporaries, drawing largely on the works of Aristotle and the Neoplatonists.这些哲学家的人scholastics一样，他们的穆斯林和基督教同时代的，提请有关组织工程的亚里士多德和neoplatonists 。 Like Philo, they tended to explain difficult Bible passages as allegories.像斐洛，他们往往难以解释圣经段落作为寓言。 Their writings were welcomed by intellectuals trying to harmonize revealed religion with the new scientific learning.他们的著作都是欢迎的知识分子试图调和启示宗教与新的科学学习。 But the masses were not interested in them, and many of the orthodox leaders regarded the new doctrines as subversive.但群众并没有对他们产生兴趣，许多人的东正教领袖把新的理论作为颠覆。 After the death of Maimonides, his admirers and detractors waged a bitter struggle in Christian Spain and the Provence.去世后，迈蒙尼德，他的崇拜者与反对者掀起了激烈的斗争，在基督教西班牙和Provence的。 His last important successor, Chisdai Crescas (d. 1410), undertook a critique of Aristotle in the interest of simple faith.他的最后一个重要的接班人， chisdai crescas （四1410 ） ，进行了批判，在亚里士多德的利益，简单的信仰。
More lasting and widespread was the influence of Kabbalah ("tradition"), a term that includes various mystical doctrines and practices.更持久和广泛的，是影响力的卡巴拉（ "传统" ） ，一个术语，它包括各种神秘学说和做法。 Mystical elements appear in the old apocalypses and in talmudic and gaonic literature.神秘的元素出现在老的启示，并在talmudic和gaonic文学。 There were mystical movements in Europe as well, culminating in the 13th and 14th centuries in southern France and northern Spain.有神秘的运动在欧洲以及，终于在13和14世纪，在法国南部和西班牙北部。 A wealth of kabbalistic writings was produced, including the Zohar ("splendor") of Moses de Leon (13th century).丰富的kabbalistic著作产生，其中包括佐哈尔（ "辉煌" ）的摩西德莱昂（ 13世纪） 。
There are many kabbalistic systems.有很多kabbalistic系统。 In addition to true mystical experience, they contain mythological and magical elements, reinterpretations of biblical and talmudic passages and of prayers and commandments, Neoplatonic ideas, and messianic speculations.除了真正的神秘经验，它们含有神话和魔幻元素，解读圣经和talmudic通道的祈祷和诫命， neoplatonic意念，并救世主式的揣测。 The tragedies that befell the Jews of Spain, culminating in the expulsion of 1492, called for stronger comfort than rational philosophies could offer.悲剧降临，犹太人的西班牙，终于在驱逐1492年，呼吁更加舒适比理性的哲学可以提供。 This was in some measure provided by Kabbalah, with its enthralling mysteries and increasing emphasis on messianism.这在一定程度上提供了卡巴拉，其令人难忘的奥秘，并越来越重视messianism 。 The Jews of central and eastern Europe also cultivated Kabbalah.犹太人的中部和东部欧洲又形成了卡巴拉。 These communities were unsurpassed in talmudic learning; French scholars contributed much to biblical studies also.这些社区都是无可比拟的，在talmudic学习;法语学者贡献良多，以圣经的研究还。 They introduced a number of legal changes to improve the status of women including a formal ban on polygamy.他们推出了一些法律的修改，以改善妇女的地位，包括一个正式禁止一夫多妻制。
The 17th century saw a revival of Jewish life in Palestine. 17世纪时看到一个复兴的犹太人生活在巴勒斯坦。 An attempt to revitalize the legal system by creating a new Sanhedrin, or central court, was unsuccessful.企图重振法律体系，创造一个新的公会，或中央法院，是不成功的。 But a 17th century mystical revival had a profound effect on Jewish thought and liturgy.但17世纪神秘的复苏产生了深刻影响，对犹太人的思想和礼仪中。 The messianic speculations of this new Kabbalah, taught by Isaac Luria, and the massacres of Polish Jewry in 1648 formed an explosive combination; in 1665 a Turkish Jew, Sabbatai Zevi, proclaimed himself the messiah.救世主的猜测，这个新的卡巴拉，由教授艾萨克luria ，和屠杀的波兰犹太人于1648年成立了一个爆炸性的组合，在1665年，土耳其犹太人，萨瓦塔伊zevi ，自封弥赛亚。 There had been many such messianic claimants over the centuries, but they never achieved more than a local following; Sabbatai's announcement, however, shook world Jewry.有许多这样的救世主索赔数百年来，但他们从来没有取得超过当地以下;萨瓦塔伊的公布，但是，震撼了世界犹太人。 Thousands of believers left their homes to join him in Palestine.成千上万的信徒离开他们的家园和他一起在巴勒斯坦。 When Sabbatai broke under threats and accepted Islam, there was widespread disillusionment and despair.当萨瓦塔伊爆发的威胁下，并接受了伊斯兰教，有一个广泛的幻灭和绝望。 Yet a substantial number of believers kept up an underground Sabbatean movement for over a century, finding kabbalistic justifications for their leader's apostasy and awaiting his triumphant return.但还有相当数量的信徒保持了一个地下sabbatean运动超过一个世纪，找kabbalistic理，为他们的领导人的变节并等待他凯旋。
A more positive mystical movement arose in eastern Europe in the 18th century. It was founded by Baal Shem Tov and was known as Hasidism. Its leaders were versed in the mysteries of Kabbalah, but they addressed themselves to the unlearned masses, teaching them a simple and joyous faith and encouraging them to express their religious feelings in ecstatic song and dance.一个更积极的神秘主义运动出现在东欧，在18世纪， 它是由巴力SHEM后tov和被称为hasidism ，其领袖均精通的奥秘卡巴拉，但他们处理自己的unlearned群众，教他们简单喜庆欢腾的信念，并鼓励他们表达自己的宗教感情，在欣喜若狂之歌与舞。 Initially opposed by the rabbinic leaders as heretical, Hasidism survived such attacks and is today regarded as representative of extreme Orthodoxy.起初反对由rabbinic领导人为异端， hasidism存活此类攻击，是今天被视为代表极端正统。 The movement declined for a time because it fostered "the cult of personality" and encouraged superstition, but it seems to have regained vitality in some American cities and in Israel.运动下降，一时间，因为它培育的"个人崇拜" ，并鼓励迷信，但它似乎已经恢复了活力，但在美国一些城市，并在以色列。
One response was Haskalah, the Hebrew word for "Enlightenment," which sought to bring modern knowledge and ideas to large numbers of Jews, using chiefly writings in modern Hebrew.一个反应是haskalah ，希伯来语意为"启示" ，力图使现代知识和理念，以大量的犹太人，用主要著作在现代希伯来语。 Moses Mendelssohn made the pioneer effort in 18th century Berlin.摩西门德尔松作出了先驱的努力，在18世纪的柏林。 His program - to combine modern education with strict Orthodox practice - was ineffective; his efforts led rather to assimilation, even to Christian baptism for worldly advancement.他的计划-结合现代教育，严格正统的做法-是无效的，他的努力促成，而不是为了同化，甚至以基督教的洗礼，为世俗的进步。 In Austrian Poland (Galicia), Haskalah was more fruitful, resulting in new efforts to study Jewish history and literature by modern critical methods ("the science of Judaism"), a trend continued with great success in Germany.在奥地利波兰（加利西亚） ， haskalah是取得更加丰硕的成果，造成新的力量去研究犹太历史和文学的现代批评方法（下称"科学的犹太教" ） ，此一趋势继续取得巨大的成功，在德国。
In Russia, the attempt at popular education, with the slogan "Be a Jew at home and a man elsewhere," was soon recognized as futile because of the government's viciously anti Jewish policies.在俄罗斯，试图在普及教育，口号是： "一个犹太人在家中和一名男子在其他地方" ，很快就被确认为无效，因为该国政府的恶毒的反犹太人的政策。 In its place, a movement for Jewish nationalism arose - first expressed in secular literature in Hebrew - decades before the rise of political Zionism.在其位，一个运动，为犹太人的民族主义产生的-首先表示，在世俗文学希伯来语-几十年前崛起的政治犹太复国主义。 Later a strong socialist movement developed in urban centers, and these Jewish socialists spoke in Yiddish, the folk language, rather than in Hebrew.后来一个强大的社会主义运动的发展，在城市中心，而这些犹太社会主义者以意第绪语，民间语言，而不是在希伯来语。
In the West, Enlightenment led to attempts at religious reconstruction, partly as a response to spreading indifference and apostasy that ghettoized Orthodoxy could not check.在西方，启蒙导致企图在宗教重建工作，部分原因是由于反应蔓延冷漠和叛教认为ghettoized正统无法入住。 The first reforms were external, to provide a more decorous and attractive synagogue service, with portions of the service read in the language of the country, organ and choral music, and the revival of preaching.第一次改革的外部，以提供一个更decorous和吸引力的犹太教堂服务，部分服务性阅读在该国的语言，管风琴与合唱音乐，和振兴的说教。 These changes aroused Orthodox opposition and sometimes government intervention.这些变化引起了正统在野，有时政府干预。 The Reformers had recourse to the newly developing "science of Judaism," showing that Judaism had always grown and changed.改革者已求助于新近开发的"科学犹太教的" ，这标志着犹太教一直成长和改变。 Eventually they developed a modernist theology, rejecting the literalist understanding of Scripture and the changeless authority of the halachah.最终，他们制定了一个现代派神学，拒绝了literalist了解经文和固定不变的权威及其halachah 。
They upheld a doctrine of progressive revelation, equating the revelation of God with the education of the Jewish people and of all humanity.他们坚持的原则渐进式的启示，等同启示上帝与教育的犹太人民和全人类的。 They rejected the traditional prayers that asked for a return to the land of Israel and the restoration of sacrifices.他们拒绝了传统祷告要求返回到以色列的土地，并恢复牺牲。 Instead of a personal messiah, they envisioned a messianic age of brotherhood and peace; and instead of bodily resurrection, they taught a purely spiritual immortality.而不是某个个人的救世主，他们设想救世主年龄的兄弟情谊与和平;不是身体复活，后来又教会了一个纯粹的精神不死。 They discarded many traditional observances as no longer meaningful, modified others, and introduced new ones, such as confirmation.他们抛弃许多传统的纪念活动，为不再具有意义，修饰等，并介绍了新的方案，如确认。 They also affirmed the equality of women in religious matters.他们还肯定了妇女的平等地位，在宗教事务上。 A second group of modernists held similar theoretical views, but retained traditional practice with only limited modifications; they became the spiritual fathers of Conservative Judaism in the United States.第二组的现代派举行了类似的理论观点，但保留了传统的做法，只取得有限的改动;成了他们的精神之父的保守犹太教在美国。
All parties, including the Orthodox Jews in western countries, were perfervid in patriotism toward their several lands.所有各方，包括东正教犹太人在西方国家，被perfervid爱国主义朝着他们几个土地。 All were deeply affected by 19th century liberalism - optimistic, universalistic, and convinced of the reality of progress.所有的人深受十九世纪的自由主义-乐观的，带有普遍性的，并深信现实的进展情况。 The modernist movements, starting in Germany, had only modest success in Europe, but expanded greatly in North America.现代主义运动的开始，在德国，只有谦虚的成功，在欧洲，而且极大地扩大了在北美地区。 They have since acquired followers in Latin America, South Africa, Australia, and Israel. The terms Reform, Liberal, Progressive, Conservative, and Reconstructionist are used in various countries with varying shades of meaning; all designate nonorthodox versions of Jewish religion.他们都因为后天的追随者在拉丁美洲，南非，澳大利亚，以色列等。 条款的改革，自由，进步，保守，重建主义，是用在不同国家具有不同色调的意义;所有指定nonorthodox版本的犹太宗教。
New forms of Jewish community and synagogue organization, mostly on a voluntary basis, emerged in the 19th century.新形式的犹太社区和犹太教会组织，大部分是在自愿的基础上，出现在19世纪。 The old rabbinic academies (Yeshivoth) confined instruction to the Talmud and its commentaries.旧rabbinic院校（ yeshivoth ）只限于教学，以犹太法典及其评论文章。 At this time modern rabbinical seminaries were established whose students were exposed to the whole range of Jewish history and lore and were required to obtain a university degree as well.在这个时候现代犹太教神学院设立的学生暴露在整个范围内的犹太历史和传说，并须取得大学学位，以及。 Important works were written on Jewish theology, displaying Kantian and post - Kantian influences.重要的作品是写于犹太神学，展现了康德和邮政-康德的影响。 Completely new were trends toward a secularist understanding of Jewish life, more or less completely rejecting religion and finding a substitute in nationalistic and cultural activities.完全新的发展趋势都是走向世俗化的理解犹太人生活中，更多或更少完全排斥宗教，并找到一个替代的民族主义和文化活动。
The prevailing liberal, optimistic mood gradually cooled as official oppression and widespread hatred continued in eastern Europe while Anti Semitism also flourished in the West.当时的自由，乐观情绪逐渐降温，作为官方的压迫和普遍的仇恨，继续在东欧，而反犹太人主义，也兴盛于西方。 Jewish thinkers exhibited an increasing sense of the tragic element in human life, in the style of existentialism.犹太思想家呈上升意义上的悲剧元素，在人类生活中，在作风上存在的。 The trend toward Jewish nationalism took concrete form in the movement of Zionism.走向犹太人的民族主义采取具体形式，在运动的犹太复国主义。 Initially opposed by many religious leaders of all parties and by the Jewish socialists, Zionism was vindicated by the march of events, culminating in the Holocaust.起初反对，许多宗教领袖的所有缔约方和犹太社会主义者，犹太复国主义是平反了，由3月的事件，终于在大屠杀。 World Jewry, despite many divisions and disagreements, is today united in concern and support for the State of Israel, which was established in 1948.世界犹太人，尽管有许多分歧和分歧，是美国今天在关心和支持以色列国，这是成立于1948年。
At present, because of political circumstances, rigid Orthodoxy is the only form of Judaism officially recognized in Israel, for example, in solemnizing marriages and in military chaplaincy. 目前，由于政治环境下，僵化的正统，是唯一的形式，犹太教正式承认以色列，举例来说，在solemnizing婚姻和军事chaplaincy 。 But a large part of the population is remote from formal religion, and the modernist versions have difficulty making their message heard.不过，大部份人口是从偏远的正式宗教，以及现代版本有困难，使他们的讯息听到。
A great exodus of Jews from the Soviet Union began in the 1970s and reached new heights in the early '90s.大逃亡的犹太人从苏联开始在20世纪70年代，并达成了新的高峰，在90年代初开始。 In the West, despite loss of members, mixed marriages, and a serious drop in the Jewish birthrate, religious institutions are flourishing.在西方，尽管会员流失，异族通婚，也是一场严肃的一滴水，在犹太出生率，宗教机构蓬勃发展。 The number of synagogues and synagogue members increased dramatically after World War II.有多少犹太教堂和犹太教堂的成员急剧上升，在第二次世界大战后。 There has been a remarkable resurgence of Orthodoxy after a long period of decline, and modernist groups are placing greater emphasis on tradition and ceremony.有一个显着的死灰复燃正统经过长时间的下跌，与现代集团更强调对传统和仪式。
Bernard J Bamberger伯纳德j巴姆博格
Bibliography:
参考书目：
J Agus, The Evolution of Jewish Thought
(1959) and The Jewish Quest (1983); L Baeck, The Essence of Judaism (1948); BJ
Bamberger, The Story of Judaism (1971); JL Blau, Modern Varieties of Judaism
(1966); B Blech, Understanding Judaism (1991); AA Cohen, The Natural and
Supernatural Jew (1962); EL Fackenheim, What is Judaism? j
Agus的，演进的犹太人的思想（ 1959年）和犹太人的追求（ 1983年） ;升baeck ，本质上的犹太教（ 1948 ） ;
BJ的巴姆博格，故事的犹太教（ 1971年） ;的JL blau ，现代品种的犹太教（ 1966 ） ， B期布莱赫，理解犹太教（ 1991年）
;机管局科恩，自然和超自然的犹太人（ 1962年） ;下午法肯海姆，什么是犹太教？ (1988); L Finkelstein, The Jews: Their
History, Culture, and Religions (1971); M Gilbert, ed., The Illustrated Atlas of
Jewish Civilization (1991); N Glazer, American Judaism (1973); D Goldberg and J
Rayner, The Jewish People (1987); J Goldin, The Jewish Expression (1970); A
Heschel, God in Search of Man (1955); M Meyer, The Origins of the Modern Jew
(1967) and, as ed., Ideas of Jewish History (1987); J Neusner, The Life of the
Torah: Readings in the Jewish Religious Experience (1974) and The Way of the
Torah (1988); D Silver and B Martin, A History of Judaism (1974); Z Sobel and B
Beit - Hallahmi, eds., Tradition, Innovation, Conflict: Judaism in Contemporary
Israel (1991); G Wigoder, Encyclopedia of Judaism (1989). （ 1988年）
;升finkelstein ，犹太人说：他们的历史，文化和宗教（ 1971年） ;米吉尔伯特版，说明了图集的犹太文明（ 1991 ）氮格拉泽，美国犹太教（
1973条） ， d戈德堡和J rayner ，犹太人（ 1987年） ; j Goldin ） ，犹太人表达（ 1970年） ; heschel
，上帝在搜索的人（ 1955年） ;米迈耶，起源现代犹太人（ 1967 ） ，并作为版，思路犹太人的历史（ 1987年） ; j neusner
，生命的律法：读犹太宗教经验（ 1974年）和方法，是根据犹太教律法（ 1988条） ， d银牌和B马丁，一个历史的犹太教（ 1974年） ;
z索贝尔和B拜-h allahmi合编，传统，创新，冲突：犹太教在当代以色列（ 1 991） 1 00w igoder，百科全书的犹太教（ 1 989）
。
This subject presentation in the original English language这一主题演讲，在原有的英语
Send an e-mail question or comment to us: E-mail邮件发送问题或意见给我们： 电子邮箱
The main BELIEVE web-page (and the index to subjects) is at http://mb-soft.com/believe/beliecha.html主要相信网页（和索引科目） ，是在http://mb-soft.com/believe/beliecha.html