Scholasticism士林

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The term scholasticism (from the Latin schola, "school") refers properly both to the doctrine and method of teaching in the medieval European schools and to their successive revivals to the present day.任期士林（从拉丁美洲schola ， “学校” ）是指既要妥善理论和教学方法，在中世纪欧洲的学校和他们相继复苏，以目前天。 As a method, scholasticism involves (1) the close, detailed reading (lectio) of a particular book recognized as a great or authoritative work of human or divine origin--for example, Aristotle in logic, Euclid in geometry, Cicero in rhetoric, Avicenna and Galen in medicine, the Bible in theology-- and (2) the open discussion (disputatio) in strict logical form of a relevant question (quaestio) arising from the text.作为一种方法，士林涉及（ 1 ）关闭，详细阅读（ lectio ）一书，特别是公认的作为一个伟大的或权威性的工作人或神的原产地-例如，亚里士多德在逻辑上，在欧几里得几何，西塞罗在修辞学，阿维森纳和盖伦在医学上，圣经在神学-和（ 2 ）公开讨论（ d isputatio）在严格的逻辑形式有关问题（ q uaestio）所产生的案文。 As a doctrine, scholasticism refers to the kind of philosophy, theology, medicine, and law (canon and civil) taught by the faculties responsible for these disciplines.作为一个学说，士林是指以种哲学，神学，医学，和法律（佳能和民间）教授，由院系负责这些学科。 These four faculties constituted the medieval universities that began to be organized in the 12th century, beginning in Bologna, Paris, and Oxford.这四个学系，构成了中世纪大学开始，将组织在12世纪，开始在博洛尼亚，巴黎和牛津大学。

The most important faculties, however, were arts (philosophy) and theology, and the term scholasticism is usually understood in the context of those disciplines.最重要的学院，但是，艺术（哲学）和神学，以及长远的士林通常理解的语境中的那些学科。

The basic philosophy of the faculty of arts was Aristotelian because the greatest and most authoritative books in philosophy were believed to be Aristotle's.基本哲学学院艺术亚里士多德，因为最大的和最权威的书籍在哲学被认为是亚里士多德的。 Aristotle, however, was interpreted differently by different professors depending on the commentaries used, notably those of "the Commentator," Averroes; the Christian Neoplatonist, Saint Augustine; or the pagan Neoplatonist, Avicenna.亚里士多德，然而，不同的解释，不同的教授，视乎有关的评论，使用，特别是那些“评论员” ， averroes ;基督教neoplatonist ，圣奥古斯丁;或异教的neoplatonist ，阿维森纳。

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Similarly in theology, the Bible was variously interpreted depending on the kind of philosophy used to understand the Christian faith systematically.同样，在神学，圣经是不同的解释，根据对种哲学用来了解基督教信仰系统。 Among the numerous ways of systematizing the faith, certain schools of theology stand out as particularly notable and viable throughout the Middle Ages and to the present day.其中很多方法的系统化的信仰，某些学校的神学站出来作为特别显着的和可行的整个中世纪和到今天。 The most important of these scholastic theologies were Thomism, developed from the teaching of Saint Thomas Aquinas; Augustinism, developed from Saint Augustine; Scotism, from John Duns Scotus; Nominalism, from William of Occam; and Suarazianism, formulated by Francisco Suarez, a 16th-century Jesuit who tried to synthesize various schools.其中最重要的学术theologies被thomism ，发达国家从教学的圣托马斯阿奎那; augustinism ，发达国家从圣奥古斯丁; scotism ，由约翰邓司各脱;唯，由威廉occam ; suarazianism ，制定旧金山苏亚雷斯，第十六世纪耶稣会谁试图综合各学校。 The basic principle underlying all forms of scholasticism was rational consistency with the Christian faith as taught in the Bible and as understood by the living Church of Rome through the writings of the ancient Greek and Latin Fathers, the rulings of the ecumenical councils, the liturgy, and the continuing teaching and practice of the church.基本原则的一切形式的士林哲学是理性的一致性与基督教信仰作为教授在圣经中和所理解的生活罗马教会通过的著作，古希腊和拉丁美洲的父亲，裁决合一议会，礼仪，和持续的教学与实践教会。

Scholasticism is generally divided into three periods: medieval scholasticism, extending from Boethius (5th-6th century) to the 16th century, with its Golden Age in the 13th century; "second scholasticism," beginning in the 16th century with Thomas de Vio Cajetan, Conrad Koellin, Peter Crokert, Francesco de Vittoria, and Francisco Suarez; and neoscholasticism, beginning in the early 19th century, given impetus by the encyclical Aeterni Patris (1879) of Pope Leo XIII, and continuing at least until the Second Vatican Council (1962-65).士林一般分为三个时期：中世纪士林，扩大从波爱修斯（第五-第六世纪） 16世纪，与它的黄金时代，在十三世纪; “第二院” ，开始在16世纪与托马斯德VIO接cajetan ，林钜成koellin ，彼得crokert ，弗朗切斯科德vittoria ，和Francisco苏亚雷斯; neoscholasticism ，开始于19世纪初，推动了通谕aeterni patris （ 1879 ）教宗利奥十三，继续，至少到梵蒂冈第二次会议（ 1962年-65 ） 。

Medieval Scholasticism中世纪经院

Boethius is generally called "the first scholastic" because he provided the first Latin translations of Aristotle's logic and other basic works used in the schools of the early Middle Ages as a prerequisite to understanding the Bible and the Latin Church Fathers and to becoming an educated person.波爱修斯是一般所谓的“第一学校” ，因为他提供了第一个拉美翻译亚里士多德的逻辑和其他的基本工程用的，在学校的中世纪早期的一个先决条件，以了解圣经和拉丁美洲教会的父亲，并成为教育的人。 In this early period, however, the dominant philosophical influence was Platonism or NeoPlatonism, particularly as it was reflected in the work of Saint Augustine.在这初期，然而，占主导地位的哲学的影响是柏拉图或柏拉图，特别是因为它是反映在工作的圣奥古斯丁。 Augustine formulated the maxim "Understand so that you may believe, believe so that you may understand"--an approach that lay at the heart of scholasticism--and urged the use of dialectics in examining Christian doctrine.奥古斯丁制定的格言： “明白，使您可以相信，相信，让你可以理解” -的做法，奠定在心脏士林-并敦促使用的辩证法在研究基督教的教义。 His principles were applied with rigor by such early scholastics as John Scotus Erigena, Saint Anselm, Peter Abelard, Alan of Lille, and numerous teachers in the cathedral schools of Laon, Chartres, Paris, Poitiers, and the abbey school of Saint- Victor in Paris.他的原则的适用与严谨性，例如早期scholastics约翰司各脱埃里杰纳，圣安瑟伦，彼得阿贝拉尔，梁家杰里尔，和许多教师在大教堂的学校，拉昂， chartres ，巴黎，普瓦捷，和修道院学校圣维克托在巴黎。

In a stricter sense, scholasticism began with the Sentences (c.1150) of Peter Lombard, the Decretum (c.1150) of Gratian, and the flood of new Latin translations of classical philosophers, including all of Aristotle, made from Greek and Arabic throughout the second half of the 12th century.在严格的意义上讲，士林开始与刑罚（ c.1150 ）彼得隆巴德， decretum （ c.1150 ） gratian ，和泛滥的新拉丁美洲翻译古典哲学家，包括所有的亚里士多德，从希腊文和阿拉伯文整个下半年的12世纪。 Assimilation of this new learning took place in the universities of the 13th century through the genius of the Dominicans Saint Albertus Magnus and his great pupil Thomas Aquinas, whose Summa Theologicae is widely regarded as the pinnacle of scholastic theology; and of the Franciscans Saint Bonaventure, John Duns Scotus, and William of Occam (early 14th century), who challenged the Dominican school.同化这一新的学习发生在高校的13世纪通过的天才多米尼加圣阿尔伯图斯马格努斯和他的伟大的学生托马斯阿奎那，其总结theologicae被广泛视为顶峰，在学术上的神学;的圣方济各文德，约翰邓司各脱，威廉occam （早期14世纪） ，谁挑战多米尼加学校。

With the multiplication of universities between the 14th and 16th centuries came a decline in the standard of teaching and the caliber of teachers, and a "logicism" or formalism of thought that aroused the animosity of a new humanism that arose mainly outside university circles.与乘法大学之间的第十四和第十六数百年来的跌幅在教学水平和高素质的教师，和“逻辑”或形式主义认为引起的敌意一个新的人文精神出现，主要是大学以外的各界人士。 The term scholasticism then began to be used in a derogatory sense.任期士林，然后开始用在一个带有贬义色彩的意识。

Second Scholasticism第二士林

The Protestant Reformation in the 16th century stimulated a revival of theology by a return to the language of the Bible, the Fathers of the Church, and the great scholastics of the 13th century.新教改革在16世纪刺激复苏的神学由一个返回到语言的圣经，父亲教会，伟大的scholastics的13世纪。 This second scholasticism was aided by the founding (1540) of the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) by Saint Ignatius Loyola with the approval of Pope Paul III.这第二个院是由计算机辅助成立（ 1540 ）社会耶稣（耶稣）由圣依纳爵罗耀拉与批准，教宗保禄三。 Foremost among the Jesuit scholastics of this period were Saint Robert Bellarmine, Francisco Suarez, and Gabriel Vazquez.其中最主要的耶稣会scholastics这一时期被圣罗伯特贝拉明，旧金山苏亚雷斯，和Gabriel瓦兹奎兹。 Due largely to the scientific revolution of the 17th century (beginning with Galileo), the quest for philosophic originality (beginning with Rene Descartes), the rise of nationalism and colonization, and the splintering of Protestant religions, second scholasticism declined.主要原因是，以科学的革命， 17世纪（开始与伽利略） ，追求原创性的哲学（从笛卡尔） ，崛起的民族主义和殖民统治，以及分裂的新教的宗教，第二士林下降。 Some forms of schoolbook scholasticism, however, remained for a time in Catholic countries, particularly Spain and Latin America.某些形式的教科书士林，不过，仍然是今后一个时期，在天主教国家，尤其是西班牙和拉丁美洲。 By the 18th century, scholasticism had again become a derogatory term, especially in non-Catholic countries.由18世纪，士林已再次成为一个贬词，特别是在非天主教国家。

Neoscholasticism neoscholasticism

Early in the 19th century in Italy certain Catholic professors of philosophy began to see in Aquinas's teaching basic principles that might resolve the problems associated with Kantian and Hegelian Idealism, British Empiricism, current Rationalism, Skepticism, and Liberalism.早在19世纪在意大利的某些天主教教授，哲学开始看到在阿奎那的教学基本原则，可能会解决相关的问题与康德和黑格尔唯心论，英国的经验主义，当前理性，怀疑，和自由主义。 By 1850, neo-Thomism or neoscholasticism began to be heard through the writings of Gaetano Sanseverino in Naples, Matteo Liberatore in Rome, and the Jesuit periodical Civilita Cattolica founded in Naples in 1850.由1850年，新thomism或neoscholasticism开始被听到的著作加埃塔诺阿兰sanseverino在那不勒斯，马特奥利贝拉托雷在罗马，和耶稣期刊civilita cattolica在那不勒斯创立于1850年。 These efforts were brought to a head by Josef Kleutgen in Germany, Henri LaCordaire in France, Zeferino Gonzales in the Philippines and Spain, and Tommaso Zigliara and Pope Leo XIII in Italy.这些努力被带到头约瑟夫kleutgen在德国，亨利拉科代尔在法国， zeferino冈萨雷斯在菲律宾和西班牙，和tommaso齐利亚拉和教宗利奥十三在意大利。 The charter of this neo-Thomism was Leo's Aeterni Patris (1879).宪章这个新thomism是利奥的aeterni patris （ 1879 ） 。 Through subsequent encyclicals, Leo exemplified the applicability of Thomistic ideas to contemporary problems.通过以后的通谕，利奥典范的适用性thomistic思想与当代的问题。 All subsequent popes, including John Paul II, reiterated the need for a Christian philosophy based on Thomistic principles.其后所有的教皇，包括教宗若望保禄二世重申，需要有一个基督教哲学的基础上thomistic原则。

The rise of Modernism in the Roman Catholic church after 1900, however, resulted in a multiplicity of ecclesiastical condemnations, a legislated Thomism, and a failure to realize the hopes of Leo XIII.崛起的现代主义在罗马天主教会后， 1900年，然而，导致在一个多元化的教会谴责，一个法定thomism ，并未能实现的希望利奥十三。 Despite this and two world wars, much fruitful work was accomplished by outstanding scholars, numerous periodicals, and editors of historical texts, including the critical edition of the works of Aquinas (the Leonine Edition).尽管这和两次世界大战，许多卓有成效的工作是通过优秀的学者，众多的期刊，和编辑的历史文本，包括关键版的工程阿奎那（ leonine版） 。 Among the great number of modern scholars who called themselves Thomists (but not neo-Thomists or neoscholastics) were Jacques Maritain, Etienne Gilson, Martin Grabmann, and Yves Congar.其中大量的现代学者谁的人称自己是thomists （但不包括新thomists或neoscholastics ） ，马里旦，艾蒂安吉尔松，李柱铭格拉布曼，和伊夫•琼加尔。

For reasons still not fully understood, a decided reaction against Aquinas and neoscholasticism occurred in the 1960s.原因还不完全明白，一个决定的反应对阿奎那和neoscholasticism发生在20世纪60年代。 Some have erroneously associated this with the Second Vatican Council, which turned people's minds toward social rather than doctrinal issues.有些人误相关，这与梵蒂冈第二次会议，把人们的思想，走向社会，而不是理论的问题。 Aquinas was, however, the only scholastic doctor mentioned by name in all the conciliar documents.阿奎那是，不过，只有在学术上的医生所提到的名称在所有conciliar文件。 The real reasons for the decline of neoscholasticism must be sought in the wider sociological and psychological concerns of contemporary society.的真正原因，下降neoscholasticism必须寻求在更广泛的社会和心理的关注，当代社会。

James A. Weisheipl詹姆斯答： weisheipl

Bibliography 参考书目
Cassidy, Frank P., Molders of the Medieval Mind (1944; repr., 1966); Congar, Yves, A History of Theology (1968); Gilson, Etienne, The Christian Philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas (1957) and History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages (1955); McInerny, RM, ed., New Themes in Christian Philosophy (1968); Pieper, Josef, Scholasticism: Personalities and Problems of Medieval Philosophy, trans.卡西迪，坦率页，模塑的中世纪记（ 1944年; repr 。 1966年） ;琼加尔，伊夫• ，历史，神学（ 1968年） ;吉尔松，艾蒂安，基督教哲学的圣托马斯阿奎那（ 1957年）和基督教的历史哲学在中世纪（ 1955年） ; mcinerny ，室，教育署，新的主题，在基督教哲学（ 1968年） ; •皮佩尔，约瑟夫，士林：性格和问题，中世纪哲学，跨。 by Richard and Clara Winston (1960); Smalley, Beryl, The Becket Conflict and the Schools: A Study of Intellectuals in Politics (1973); Weinberg, JR, A Short History of Medieval Philosophy (1964).由Richard和克拉拉温斯顿（ 1960年） ; Smalley ） ，绿柱石，贝克特的冲突和学校：研究知识分子在政治上（ 1973年） ;温伯格， JR和历史较短，中世纪哲学（ 1964年） 。

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