Reformation改革
General
Information 一般资料
The Reformation
of the 16th century was a movement within Western Christendom to purge the
church of medieval abuses and to restore the doctrines and practices that the
reformers believed conformed with the Bible and the New Testament model of the
church.改革16世纪是一个迁徙的西方基督教，清除教会中世纪的虐待和恢复的理论和做法，改革者认为符合圣经和新约圣经模型的教会。
This led to a breach between the Roman
Catholic Church and the reformers whose beliefs and practices came to be called
Protestantism.这导致违反之间的罗马天主教会和改革者的信仰和习俗来到被称为基督教。
Causes原因
The causal factors involved in the
Reformation were complex and
interdependent.因果关系所涉及的因素在改革的复杂和相互依存的。 Precursors of the Reformation proper
included the movements founded by John Wycliffe (the Lollards) and John Huss
(the Hussites) during the 14th and 15th
centuries.前体的改革，包括适当的运动，成立了由约翰wycliffe （ lollards
）和约翰胡斯（胡斯之徒）在十四，十五世纪。 These reform groups, however, were
localized (in England and Bohemia) and were largely
suppressed.这些改革的团体，不过，本地化（在英格兰和波西米亚） ，并在很大程度上抑制。 Changes in the intellectual and
political climate were among the factors that made the reform movement of the
16th century much more
formidable.的变化，在智力和政治气候的因素之一所作的改革运动16世纪更为艰巨。
The cultural
Renaissance that occurred during the preceding century and a half was a
necessary preliminary, because it raised the level of education, reemphasized
the ancient classics, contributed to thought and learning, and offered Humanism
and rhetoric as an alternative to
Scholasticism.文化复兴过程中出现的前一个半世纪是一个必要的初步，因为它提出的教育水平，再次古代经典，作出贡献的思想和学习，并提供以人为本和修辞作为一种替代，以士林。
Especially through its emphasis on the
biblical languages and close attention to the literary texts, the Renaissance
made possible the biblical exegesis that led to Martin Luther's doctrinal
reinterpretation.特别是通过其侧重于圣经的语言和密切关注文学文本，文艺复兴时期的可能性圣经注释，导致马丁路德的理论重新解释。
Moreover, Christian humanists like
Desiderius Erasmus criticized ecclesiastical abuses and promoted the study of
both the Bible and the church
fathers.此外，基督教人文主义者一样，狄西德里乌斯伊拉斯谟批评教会的虐待和促进了双方的研究圣经和教会的父亲。 The invention of printing by Johann
Gutenberg provided a powerful instrument for the spread of learning and
Reformation ideas.发明了印刷，由约翰古腾堡，提供了强大的工具，传播的学习和改革的思路。
That grave ills were spreading through
the church was already evident at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, at which
Pope Innocent III called for
reform.这一严重的弊病蔓延透过教会已很明显在第四次拉特兰会在1215年，当时教宗诺森三世的所谓改革。 The papacy itself was weakened by its
move from Rome to Avignon (1309-77), by the Great Schism of the papacy, which
lasted four decades thereafter, and by the doctrine that supreme authority in
the church belonged to general councils
(Conciliarism).教宗本身就是削弱了其动议从罗马到亚维侬（ 1309年至1377年）
，由大分裂的教宗，历时40年，此后，和由理论的最高权威在教会里属于一般议会（ conciliarism ） 。 The Renaissance popes were notoriously
worldly.文艺复兴时期的教皇众所周知人间。 Abuses such as simony, nepotism, and
financial excesses increased.滥用，如西摩尼，裙带关系，金融的过度增加。 The church was riddled with venality
and immorality.教会是千疮百孔的venality和不道德的。 The sale of Indulgences was a
particularly unfortunate practice because it impinged upon true spiritual
repentance and improvement of
life.的销售indulgences是一个特别不幸的做法，因为它影响到真正的心灵忏悔和改善生活。 At the same time a genuine upsurge of
popular religiosity manifested itself and increased the disparity between the
people's expectations and the church's ability to satisfy spiritual
needs.在同一时间，一个真正的高潮受欢迎的宗教表现出来，并增加之间的差距人民的期望和教会的执政能力，以满足精神需求。 Some turned to mysticism and inward
religion, but the great mass of people were restless and
dissatisfied.一些转向神秘主义和外来宗教，但大弥撒的人被不安和不满。
A significant
political change occurred during the later Middle Ages as
well.一项重大的政治变化发生在稍后的中世纪以及。 The Holy Roman Empire, which had lost
cohesion partly as a result of its struggle with the papacy in the Investiture
Controversy, was weakened by the growth of virtually independent territorial
princedoms and free imperial
cities.神圣罗马帝国，失去了凝聚力，部分是由于它的斗争，与教宗在investiture争议，是削弱的增长几乎是独立的领土princedoms和自由帝国城市。
Externally the empire was weakened by
the gradual evolution of the nation-states of modern western
Europe.对外帝国被削弱由循序渐进的民族国家的现代西欧。 The monarchies in France, England, and,
later, Spain were developing dynastic strength and unity that enabled them
largely to control the church within their
borders.该王朝在法国，英国，以及后来，西班牙都是发展中国家王朝的力量和团结使他们在很大程度上控制教会在其境内。
Economically, the
rise of commerce and the shift to a moneyed economy had the effect of creating a
stronger middle class in a more urban
society.在经济上，崛起的商业和转移到一个傍大款经济的影响，创造一个强大的中产阶层更城市社会。 The church met financial difficulty
during this time because it had become involved in the manorial economy,
possessed landed wealth, and had trouble meeting its extensive administrative,
diplomatic, and judicial
obligations.教会会见了财政困难，在这段时间，因为它已成为涉及在该庄园经济，拥有降落的财富，并已麻烦，满足其广泛的行政，外交，司法和义务。
Development发展
Luther路德。
The Reformation began in Germany on
Oct. 31, 1517, when Martin Luther, an Augustinian university professor at
Wittenberg, posted 95 theses inviting debate over the legitimacy of the sale of
indulgences.改革开始在德国对1517年10月31日，当马丁路德，一奥古斯丁大学教授在维滕贝格，张贴论文95邀请辩论的合法性的销售indulgences
。 The papacy viewed
this as a gesture of rebellion and proceeded to take steps against Luther as a
heretic.教宗认为这是一种姿态的叛乱，并着手采取措施，对路德作为一个邪教组织。 The German humanists supported Luther's
cause during the early years.德国的人文主义者支持路德的事业的最初几年期间。 The reformer's three famous treatises
of 1520, An Open Letter to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation
Concerning the Reform of the Christian Estate, The Babylonian Captivity of the
Church, and On the Freedom of a Christian, also won him powerful popular
support.改革者的三个著名论文的1520年，一封公开信基督教贵族的德国国家有关改革的基督教地产，巴比伦囚禁的教会，以及对新闻自由的基督徒，也为他赢得强大的民意支持。
He was excommunicated in 1521, but in
April of that year at the Diet at Worms he stood before Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V and the German princes and refused to recant unless proven wrong by
the Bible or by clear
reason.他是excommunicated在1521年，但在4月这一年在国会蠕虫在他之前，站在神圣的罗马皇帝查理五世和德国王子和拒绝收回，除非证明是错误的圣经或明确的理由。
He believed that salvation was a free
gift to persons through the forgiveness of sins by God's grace alone and
received by them through faith in
Christ.他认为，救国是一份免费的礼物的人通过罪的赦免，由上帝的恩典，单，并收到由他们通过在基督信仰。
Luther was
protected by Frederick III, elector of Saxony, and other German princes--partly
out of intellectual and religious conviction, partly out of the desire to seize
church property, and partly to assert independence of imperial control--gave
their support to the
reformers.路德是受保护的由冯检三，选民的萨克森州，和其他德国王子-部分出来的智力和宗教信念，这部分是出于愿望，抓住教会财产，以及部分断言独立的帝国控制-给他们的支持，向改革者。
In 1530 many princes and cities signed
the Augsburg Confession presented at the Diet of Augsburg as an expression of
the evangelical faith.在1530年许多王子和城市签署了奥格斯堡供认介绍了在国会的奥格斯堡作为表达福音的信仰。
After years of conflict the settlement
reached in the Peace of Augsburg (1555) provided that each German prince would
determine the religious affiliation (Roman Catholic or Lutheran) of the
territory he ruled.经过多年的冲突达成的解决办法是在和平的奥格斯堡（
1555年）规定，每个德国王子将确定宗教背景（罗马天主教或路德会）的领土，他裁定。 Lutheranism also became the established
religion of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and
Finland.路德教，也成为既定的宗教，丹麦，瑞典，挪威和芬兰。 Apart from the role of the princes,
however, the Reformation spread rapidly as a popular
movement.除了角色的王子，但是，改革的迅速蔓延，作为一个受欢迎的运动。 It penetrated Poland, Bohemia, Moravia,
Hungary, and Transylvania.它侵入波兰，波西米亚，摩拉维亚，匈牙利和特兰西瓦尼亚。
Zwingli
zwingli
The Reformation
in Switzerland initially developed in Zurich under the leadership of the priest
Ulrich Zwingli.改革在瑞士，初步形成在瑞士苏黎世的领导下，神父乌尔里希zwingli 。 Zwingli had been influenced by Erasmus
and by Christian humanism. zwingli受到了伊拉斯谟和基督教人文精神。 He arrived at an evangelical
understanding of Christianity from his study of the Bible and from contacts with
Lutherans.他来到一个福音事工促进会，了解基督教从他的研究圣经和从接触lutherans 。 On Jan. 1, 1519, he began a 6-year
series of sermons on the New Testament that moved the city council and the
people of Zurich toward
reform.对1519年1月1日，他开始了6年的一系列说教对新约圣经感动了市议会和人民的苏黎世对改革。 The favorable response to The
Sixty-Seven Articles, which he prepared for public disputation with a papal
representative in 1523, proved the popularity of his
program.有利为了回应67条，这是他编写的，供公众争议与教皇的代表在1523年，证明受欢迎程度，他计划。 He called for the abolition of the Mass
(and its replacement by a symbolic Lord's Supper), independence from episcopal
control, and a reform of the city-state in which both priests and Christian
magistrates would conform to the will of God.他呼吁取消了质量（及其所取代，象征上帝的晚餐）
，独立从主教的控制，以及改革的城市国家，在双方的神父和基督教裁判官将符合意愿的上帝。 His influence spread to other Swiss
cantons such as Basel, Saint Gall, and
Bern.他的影响力扩散到其他瑞士各州，如巴塞尔，圣胆，和伯尔尼。
Calvin卡尔文
Through Lutheran tracts and merchant
missionaries, the evangelical movement spread to France, where it won many
converts, among whom was John
Calvin.透过信义域和商人，传教士，福音运动蔓延到法国，在那里赢得了很多转换，其中是约翰卡尔文。 In 1536, Calvin went to Geneva, where a
reformation led by Guillaume Farel was well under
way.在1536年，卡尔文前往日内瓦，如果改革主导的纪尧姆惹勒正在顺利进行。 Calvin was persuaded to stay in Geneva
and helped organize the second major surge of
Protestantism.卡尔文被说服留在日内瓦和帮助组织的第二个主要的热潮基督教。 In his Ordinances of 1541, he gave a
new organization to the church consisting of pastors, doctors, elders, and
deacons.在他的条例， 1541年，他给了一个新的组织构成的教会牧师，医生，长老，和执事。 His Institutes of the Christian
Religion (1536) had great influence in France, Scotland (where John Knox carried
the Calvinist reformation), and among the Puritans in England.他的研究所的基督教（
1536 ）有很大的影响，在法国，苏格兰（如约翰诺克斯进行了calvinist改革） ，其中清教徒在英格兰。 Geneva became the center of a great
missionary enterprise that reached into France, where the Huguenots became so
powerful that a synod met in Paris in 1559 to organize a nationwide church of
some 2,000 reformed
congregations.日内瓦成为中心一个伟大的传教士的企业达成了到法国，而法国新教徒成为如此强大，一个主教会议在巴黎举行的1559年举办一个全国性的教会的一些2000年改革的毕业典礼。
As a result of the French Wars of
Religion, the Huguenot party was checked and the French monarchy kept the
kingdom Catholic.由于法国的宗教战争，胡格诺党的检查和法国君主制保持了英国天主教。
England英格兰
Although England had a religious reform
movement influenced by Lutheran ideas, the English Reformation occurred as a
direct result of King Henry VIII's efforts to divorce his first wife, Catherine
of
Aragon.虽然英格兰有一个宗教的改革运动的影响，信义观念，英格兰宗教改革发生的一个直接后果国王亨利八世的努力，离婚的第一任妻子，凯瑟琳的阿拉贡。
The formal break with the papacy was
masterminded by Thomas Cromwell, the king's chief
minister.正式打破与教宗是策划的托马斯克伦威尔，国王的首席部长。 Under Cromwell's direction Parliament
passed the Act in Restraint of Appeals (to Rome; 1533), followed by the Act of
Supremacy (1534) fully defining the royal headship over the
church.根据克伦威尔的方向，议会通过了该法在克制的呼吁（罗马; 1533 ） ，其次是法至上（ 1534
）充分界定皇家校长以上的教会。 As archbishop of
Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer annulled Henry's marriage to Catherine, allowing the
king to marry Anne Boleyn.作为坎特伯雷大主教托马斯克兰默废止亨利的婚姻凯瑟琳，让国王结婚安妮•博林。
Although Henry himself wished to make
no doctrinal changes, Cromwell and Cranmer authorized the translation of the
Bible into English, and Cranmer was largely responsible for the Book of Common
Prayer, adopted under Henry's successor, Edward
VI.虽然亨利本人希望不作理论的变化，克伦威尔和克兰默授权翻译圣经译成英文，和克兰默，主要是负责这本书的共同祈祷，通过下亨利的接班人，何承天六。
The gains that Protestantism made under
Edward (r. 1547-53) were lost under his Catholic sister Mary I (r.
1553-58).所取得的基督教根据何承天（ r. 1547年至1553年）失去了在他的天主教的妹妹玛丽一世（ r. 1553年至1558年）
。 The religious
settlement (1559) under Elizabeth I, however, guaranteed the Anglican
establishment.宗教解决（ 1559 ）下，黄钱其濂，但我保证，英国圣公会建立。
The
Radicals激进
The radicals consisted of a great
variety of sectarian groups known as Anabaptists because of their common
opposition to infant baptism.激进派组成一个伟大的各种宗派团体称为anabaptists
，因为他们共同反对婴儿的洗礼。 The Anabaptist
leader Thomas Munzer played a leading role in the Peasants' War (1524-26), which
was suppressed with the support of Luther.该再洗礼派领导人托马斯munzer发挥了主导作用，在农民战争（
1524至1526年） ，这是压制与支持路德。 In Munster, radical Anabaptists
established (1533) a short-lived theocracy in which property was held
communally.在明斯特，激进的anabaptists成立（ 1533 ）短命的神在其中的财产是具有社区举行。 This too was harshly
suppressed.这也是被严厉镇压。 The radicals also encompassed
evangelical humanists and spiritualists who developed highly individualistic
religious
philosophies.激进分子还包括福音事工促进会，人文主义和spiritualists谁开发高度个性化的宗教哲学。
Results结果
An obvious result of the Reformation
was the division of Western Christendom into Protestant and Catholic
areas.一个明显的结果，改革是分工到西方基督教新教和天主教的地区。 Another result was the development of
national churches; these strengthened the growth of modern national states, just
as, earlier, growing national consciousness had facilitated the development of
the
Reformation.另一个结果是发展国家的教会;这些加强的增长，现代民族国家，正如较早前，越来越多的民族意识，促进了发展，改革。
The Catholic
Counter-Reformation--including the founding of the Jesuits by Ignatius Loyola
(sanctioned 1540), the Council of Trent (1545-63), the Inquisition, the Index,
and reformed clergy like Charles Borromeo--gave new life to the old church and
was in part a result of the Reformation
movement.天主教反改革-包括成立由耶稣会士依纳爵罗耀拉（制裁的1 540号决议） ，安理会的特伦特（ 1 545年至1 563年）
，宗教裁判所，该指数，和改革的神职人员一样，查尔斯b orromeo-提供了新的生活向旧教堂，并在部分因改革运动。 Finally, the Reformation introduced
much radical change in thought and in ecclesiastical and political organization
and thus began many of the trends that are taken to characterize the modern
world.最后，改革介绍了很多激进的改变，在思想和在教会和政治组织，从而开始了很多的趋势，采取了特有的现代世界。
Lewis W.
Spitz刘易斯瓦特施皮茨
Bibliography
参考书目
Bainton, Roland
H., Women of the Reformation (1977) and Age of the Reformation (1984); Chadwick,
Owen, The Reformation (1964); Cowen, IB, The Scottish Reformation (1982);
Dickens, AG, The English Reformation (1964) and The German Nation and Martin
Luther (1974); Dickens, AG, et al., The Reformation in Historical Thought
(1985); Donaldson, Gordon, The Scottish Reformation (1972); Elton, GR, Reform
and Reformation: England, 1509-1558 (1978); Grimm, Harold, The Reformation Era,
2d ed.班顿，罗兰每小时，妇女的改革（ 1977年）和年龄的改革（ 1984年） ;查德威克，欧文，改革（ 1964年） ;
Cowen机构，兴业，苏格兰的改革（ 1982年） ;狄更斯，银，英格兰宗教改革（ 1964年）和德国民族和马丁路德（ 1974年）
;狄更斯，银，等人，改革的历史思考（ 1985年） ;唐纳森，戈登，苏格兰的改革（ 1972年） ;埃尔顿，遗传资源，改革与改造：英格兰，
1509年至1558年（ 1978年） ;格里姆，哈罗德，改革的时代，二维，教育署。 (1973); Hillerbrand, Hans J.,
Christendom Divided: The Protestant Reformation (1971), and, as ed., The
Reformation (1978); McNeill, John T., The History and Character of Calvinism
(1954); Olin, John, and Smart, JD, eds., Luther, Erasmus and the Reformation
(1970; repr. 1982); Ozment, GR, The Reformation in the Cities (1975), and When
Fathers Ruled (1983); Smith, Page, The Age of Reformation, 2 vols. （
1973年） ; hillerbrand ，汉斯j. ，基督教的分歧：新教改革（ 1971年） ，并作为教育署，改革（ 1978年） ;
McNeill商品，约翰汤匙，历史和性质，加尔文（ 1954年） ;奥林，约翰，和聪明，法学博士，编，路德，伊拉斯谟和改革（ 1970年; repr 。
1982年） ; ozment ，遗传资源，改造，在城市（ 1975 ） ，和当父亲的裁决（ 1983年） ;史密斯，网页，年龄改造， 2卷。
(1962); Spitz, Lewis W., The
Renaissance and Reformation Movement (1971), and The Protestant Reformation
(1984). （ 1962年） ;施皮茨，刘易斯瓦特，文艺复兴时期和改革运动（ 1971年） ，以及新教改革（ 1984年） 。
Also, see:此外，见：
Protestant
Reformation (advanced information) 新教改革（先进的信息）
Canons
of Dort 大炮的dort
Belgic
Confession belgic自白
Heidelberg
Confession 海德堡的自白
Helvetic
Confession helvetic自白
Westminster
Confession 西敏寺自白
Augsburg
Confession 奥格斯堡自白
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