Nominalism is the designation usually applied to any philosophical system, ancient or modern, that denies all objectivity, whether actual or potential, to universals; in other words, nominalists grant no universality to mental concepts outside the mind.唯是指定通常适用于任何哲学体系，古代或现代，否认所有的客观性，不论是实际或潜在的，共性;换句话说， nominalists补助金没有普遍性，以思想观念以外的主意。 In this sense, the philosophical systems of Epicurus, William of Occam, George Berkeley, David Hume, John Stuart Mill, and of contemporary linguistic analysis may be called nominalistic in that they attribute universality only to words (nomina), mental habits, or concepts and maintain the objective existence only of the concrete, individual thing.在这个意义上说，哲学体系的一匹苦儒，威廉occam ，乔治伯克利分校的大卫休谟，弥尔，当代语言学分析可称为nominalistic在他们属性的普遍性，只字（ nomina ） ，心理习惯，或概念保持客观存在，不仅具体，个别的事。 Nominalism is simultaneously opposed to the philosophical idealism of Plato and to the moderate realism of Aristotle and Saint Thomas Aquinas.唯是同时反对唯心主义哲学柏拉图和温和的现实主义的亚里士多德和圣托马斯阿奎那。 The principal objection of nominalists is to the attribution of objective existence to ideas formally as they exist in the mind and fundamentally (or potentially) as they exist in particulars having some similarity to each other in any given class or species.主要的反对nominalists是归属客观存在的意见，正式因为他们中存在的思想和从根本上（或潜在） ，因为他们中存在的细节有一些相似对方在任何特定的阶层或物种。
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Bibliography
参考书目
Carre, Meyrick
H., Realists and Nominalists (1961); Field, Hartrey, Science without Numbers:
Nominalism Revisited (1980); Goodman, Nelson, and Bochenski, Innocentius, eds.,
The Problem of Universals, A Symposium (1956); Van Iten, R., ed., The Problem of
Universals (1970); Veatch, H., Realism and Nominalism Revisited (1954).
carre ， meyrick每小时，现实主义者和nominalists （ 1961年） ;领域， hartrey ，科学没有号码：唯重新审查（ 1980年）
;古德曼，纳尔逊，和博琴斯基， innocentius编，问题的共性，专题讨论会（ 1956年） ;范iten ， r. ，教育署，问题的共性（ 1970年）
; veatch ，每小时，现实主义和唯回顾（ 1954年） 。
Nominalism (Latin nominalis,"of or pertaining to names"), in medieval Scholastic philosophy, doctrine stating that abstractions, known as universals, are without essential or substantive reality, and that only individual objects have real existence.唯（拉丁语系nominalis ， “或有关的名字” ） ，在中世纪士林哲学，理论，说明抽象的，被称为共性，是没有必要的或实质性的现实，只有个别的对象有真正的存在。 These universals, such as animal, nation, beauty, circle, were held to be mere names, hence the term nominalism.这些共性，如动物，一个民族，一个美丽，圆圈，举行了仅仅是名称，因此，长远的唯。 For example, the name circle is applied to things that are round and is thus a general designation; but no concrete identity with a separate essence of roundness exists corresponding to the name. The nominalistic doctrine is opposed to the philosophical theory called extreme realism (see Realism), according to which universals have a real and independent existence prior to and apart from particular objects.举例来说，名称圈是适用的东西，是全面因此，一般指定，但没有具体的身份与一个单独的本质，圆存在相应的名称。 nominalistic学说是反对的哲学理论，叫作极端现实主义 （见现实主义） ，根据其中的共性有一个真正的和独立的存在之前，除了特别的对象。
Nominalism evolved from the thesis of Aristotle that all reality consists of individual things; the extreme theory of realism was first enunciated by Plato in his doctrine of universal archetypal ideas.唯演变，从亚里士多德的论断，所有的现实构成的个别事物;极端理论的现实主义的首次阐述了柏拉图在他的学说的普遍原型的想法。 The nominalist-realist controversy became prominent in the late 11th and 12th centuries, the nominalist position being expounded by the Scholastic Roscelin, and the realist by the Scholastics Bernard of Chartres and William of Champeaux.该nominalist现实主义的争议，成为一个突出的后期，第11和12世纪， nominalist的立场所阐述的学术罗瑟兰，和现实主义者，由scholastics伯纳德的chartres和威廉champeaux 。
The issue between nominalism and realism was not only philosophical but also theological, for Roscelin maintained that the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), conceived in the traditional theology of the church as constituting a unity of one divine nature, cannot be understood, according to the individualizing method of nominalism, except as three distinct and separate gods, a doctrine known as tritheism. The church was therefore irreconcilably opposed to nominalism.问题之间的唯和现实主义不仅是哲学，但也神学思想建设，为罗瑟兰坚持认为，三位一体（父，子，圣灵） ，构思，在传统的神学教会构成了一个统一的一神性，不能被理解，根据该个体化的方法，唯名，除三个不同的和独立的神，一种理论称为tritheism 。教会，因此，无法调和，反对唯。 The implications for ethics were also far-reaching.影响伦理，也影响深远。 If there is no common nature for all individuals, then there is no "natural law" that governs all people; actions are morally right or wrong only because they are commanded or forbidden by God.如果没有共同的性质，为所有个人，然后是没有“自然法” ，执政全体人民;行动，在道义上是正确或错误，只是因为他们是指挥或禁止的上帝。
A theory intermediate between nominalism and realism is that of conceptualism, in which universals, although they have no real or substantive existence in the external world, do exist as ideas or concepts in the mind and are thus something more than mere names.理论之间的中间唯和现实主义是指conceptualism ，在其中的共性，虽然他们有没有真正的或实质性的存在，在外部世界确实存在，作为思想或观念，在思想和因此，一些不仅仅是名称。 Another alternative theory is moderate realism, which locates universals in the mind but also admits a real basis in particular objects.另一理论是温和的现实主义，位于共性在心中，但也承认，一个真正的基础上，特别是对象。 The defense of nominalism undertaken by the 14th-century English Scholastic philosopher William of Ockham prepared the way for various modern nominalistic theories such as those of instrumentalism, pragmatism, semantics, and logical positivism.国防部的唯由14世纪的英语学业哲学家威廉ockham准备的方式为各种现代nominalistic理论等，这些工具主义，实用主义，语义，和逻辑实证主义。
Nominalism is the theory of knowledge that maintains that "universals" (general concepts representing the common elements belonging to individuals of the same genus or species) are empty concepts that have no reality independent of their existence in the thought of an individual.唯是理论知识，坚持认为“共性” （一般的概念，代表的共同要素，属于个人的同一属或种）是空洞的概念，没有独立的现实，他们的存在，在思想的个人。 In contrast to Platonic realism, which held that universals had a separate existence apart from the individual object, nominalism insisted that reality was found only in the objects themselves.在对比柏拉图式的现实主义，认为共性有一个单独的存在，除了个别对象，唯坚持认为，现实被发现，只有在物体本身。 This debate on universals, found in Porphyry's Isagogue, caused great controversy during the Middle Ages.这次辩论的共性，发现在斑岩的isagogue ，引起了很大争议，在中世纪。 Roscellinus of Compiegne, a teacher and priest in Brittany in the eleventh century, has been called the father of nominalism because he argued that universals are derived from one's observation of individuals and that concepts of genus and species are just abstractions. roscellinus的贡比涅，一名教师和牧师在布列塔尼在11世纪，被称为父亲唯，因为他认为，共性是来自一个人的观察个人和概念的属和物种的只是抽象的。 This affected his theology, because it led him to the belief that "God" was no more than a word, an empty abstraction, and that the divine reality was actually found in the three individuals of the Godhead.这影响了他的神学，因为它使他相信“上帝”是不超过一句话，一个空洞的抽象，以及神圣的现实，实际上是在发现这三个人的神的源头。 He was condemned by the Synod of Soissons (1092) for holding to tritheism.他谴责主教的苏瓦松（ 1092年）举行，以tritheism 。
In the fourteenth century William of Ockham devised a nominalistic system of theology based on his belief that universals were only a convenience of the human mind.在14世纪威廉ockham设计了一个nominalistic系统神学的基础上，他相信共性，只有方便人的头脑。 According to this view, the fact of a resemblance between two individuals does not necessitate a common attribute; the universals one forms in his mind more likely reflect one's own purposes rather than the character of reality.根据这一观点，事实上，一个相似之间的这两个人，并不需要一个共同的属性;共性一形式，在他心中更可能反映了一个自己的目的，而不是性质的现实。 This led William to question scholastic arguments built upon such abstractions.这导致威廉的问题在学术上的争论建立在这种抽象的。 As he argues in his Centilogium, systematization of theology must be rejected, for theology can ultimately be based only on faith and not on fact.他辩称，在他的centilogium化，制度化的神学，必须予以抵制，神学，最终只能基于对信仰，而不是对事实。 Therefore, through grace and not knowledge, he accepted the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, bowed to the authority of the pope, and declared the authority of Scripture.因此，通过的宽限期，而不是知识，他接受的教诲，罗马天主教会，屈服于权威的教宗，并宣布权威的经文。 His follower, Gabriel Biel, would carry his thought to its logical conclusion and declare that reason could neither demonstrate that God was the First Cause of the universe nor make a distinction between the attributes of God, including God's intellect and will.他的追随者，加布里埃尔，比尔将进行他认为其合乎逻辑的结论，并宣布这个原因，既不能证明上帝是第一的原因，宇宙也不之间作出区分的属性，上帝，包括上帝的智慧和意志。 The reality of the Trinity, as well as any theological dogma, can be found only in the realm of faith, not in the realm of reason.现实的三位一体，以及任何的神学教条，可以发现，只有在信仰的境界，而不是在境界的原因。 This was diametrically opposed to the natural theology of medieval scholasticism.这是截然相反的，以自然神学的中世纪经院。
Nominalism continued to have an effect on theology.唯继续有一个神学的影响。 Its influence can be discerned in the writings of David Hume and John Stuart Mill.其影响力可以分辨在著作大卫休谟和弥尔。
DA
Rausch大rausch
(Elwell Evangelical Dictionary)
（ elwell福音事工促进会，字典）
Bibliography
参考书目
DM Armstrong,
Universals and Scientific Realism: Nominalism and Realism, I; FJ Copleston,
History of Philosophy, III; RA Eberle, Nominalistic Systems; R. Seeberg,
Text-book of the History of Doctrines, II.马克阿姆斯特朗，共性和科学的现实主义：唯和现实主义，我; fj
copleston ，历史，哲学，三;类风湿性关节炎eberle ， nominalistic系统; r. seeberg
，文字图书的历史，教义，二。
These terms are used to designate the theories that have been proposed as solutions of one of the most important questions in philosophy, often referred to as the problem of universals, which, while it was a favourite subject for discussion in ancient times, and especially in the Middle Ages, is still prominent in modern and contemporary philosophy.这些条款是用于指定的理论已提出解决方案的其中一个最重要的问题，在哲学，往往被称为问题的共性，其中，而这是一个最喜欢讨论的主题在远古时代，特别是在中世纪，仍然突出，在现代和当代哲学。 We propose to discuss in this article:我们建议，讨论在这篇文章的看法：
I. The Nature of the Problem and the Suggested Solutions;一，问题的性质和所建议的解决办法;
II.二。 The Principal Historic Forms of Nominalism, Realism, and Conceptualism;主要的历史形式的唯名，现实主义，和conceptualism ;
III.三。 The Claims of Moderate Realism.索赔温和的现实主义。
I. THE PROBLEM AND THE SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS一，问题及建议解决方案
The problem of universals is the problem of the correspondence of our intellectual concepts to things existing outside our intellect.问题是共性的问题的信件我们的智力概念的东西，现有的以外，我们的智慧。 Whereas external objects are determinate, individual, formally exclusive of all multiplicity, our concepts or mental representations offer us the realities independent of all particular determination; they are abstract and universal.而外部对象是确定的，个别的，正式独家所有的多重性，我们的观念上或精神上的交涉，为我们提供了现实独立于所有的，特别是决心，他们是抽象的普遍性。 The question, therefore, is to discover to what extent the concepts of the mind correspond to the things they represent; how the flower we conceive represents the flower existing in nature; in a word, whether our ideas are faithful and have an objective reality.因此，问题是发现到什么程度的概念，心中对应到的东西，他们所代表的;如何花，我们的构想，代表了花卉中存在的性质;在一个字，无论是我们的想法是忠实和有一个客观现实。
Four solutions of the problem have been offered. 4解的问题已提供。 It is necessary to describe them carefully, as writers do not always use the terms in the same sense.这是有必要来形容他们仔细，作为作家并不总是使用的条款，在同样的意义。
A. Exaggerated Realism答：夸张的现实主义
Exaggerated Realism holds that there are universal concepts in the mind and universal things in nature.夸大了现实主义认为，有普遍的观念在头脑和普遍的东西，在性质上。 There is, therefore, a strict parallelism between the being in nature and the being in thought, since the external object is clothed with the same character of universality that we discover in the concept.因此，严格的平行关系正处于性质和正处于思想，由于外部对象是温饱与同一性质的普遍性，我们发现在这一概念。 This is a simple solution, but one that runs counter to the dictates of common sense.这是一个简单的解决办法，但一上运行的反支配的共同意识。
B. Nominalism乙唯
Exaggerated Realism invents a world of reality corresponding exactly to the attributes of the world of thought.夸大了现实主义的发明的世界现实，相应的完全的属性，世界的思路。 Nominalism, on the contrary, models the concept on the external object, which it holds to be individual and particular.唯，相反，模型的概念，对外部对象，它认为，要个别和特别。 Nominalism consequently denies the existence of abstract and universal concepts, and refuses to admit that the intellect has the power of engendering them.唯因此否认的存在，抽象的和普遍的观念，不肯承认智力有权力的产生。 What are called general ideas are only names, mere verbal designations, serving as labels for a collection of things or a series of particular events.什么是所谓的总体思路是，只有姓名，只是口头指定，担任的标签，收集的东西，或一系列的特别活动。 Hence the term Nominalism.因此，长远的唯。 Neither Exaggerated Realism nor Nominalism finds any difficulty in establishing a correspondence between the thing in thought and the thing existing in nature, since in different ways, they both postulate perfect harmony between the two.既不夸大也不是现实主义的唯发现任何的困难，建立一个对应关系的事，思想和事中存在的性质，因为在不同的方式，他们都假定完美和谐的两国之间。 The real difficulty appears when we assign different attributes to the thing in nature and to the thing in thought; if we hold that the one is individual and the other universal.真正的困难时，会出现我们指定不同的属性，这件事在性质上和这件事在思想;如果我们认为，一个是个人和其他具有普遍性。 An antinomy then arises between the world of reality and world as represented in the mind, and we are led to inquire how the general notion of flower conceived by the mind is applicable to the particular and determinate flowers of nature.一个二律背反，然后出现世界之间的现实和世界为代表的头脑，和我们领导的过问如何的一般概念花卉所设想的心目中是适用于特定的和确定的花朵的性质。
C. Conceptualism长conceptualism
Conceptualism admits the existence within us of abstract and universal concepts (whence its name), but it holds that we do not know whether or not the mental objects have any foundation outside our minds or whether in nature the individual objects possess distributively and each by itself the realities which we conceive as realized in each of them. conceptualism承认存在与我们的抽象和普遍的概念（ whence其姓名） ，但它认为，我们不知道是否或不精神的对象有任何的基础以外，我们的头脑，或是否在性质上的个别物体具有distributively和每个本身现实，我们设想，作为实现在他们每个人。 The concepts have an ideal value; they have no real value, or at least we do not know whether they have a real value.的概念有一个理想的价值;他们没有真正的价值，或者至少是我们不知道他们是否有实际价值。
D. Moderate Realism四温和的现实主义
Moderate Realism, finally, declares that there are universal concepts representing faithfully realities that are not universal.温和的现实主义，最后，宣称有普遍的观念，忠实地代表现实，不具有普遍性。
How can there be harmony between the former and the latter?如何才能有和谐的关系，前者后者？ The latter are particular, but we have the power of representing them to ourselves abstractly.后者则是特别，但我们有权力代表他们自己的抽象。 Now the abstract type, when the intellect considers it reflectively and contrasts it with the particular subjects in which it is realized or capable of being realized, is attributable indifferently to any and all of them.现在抽象的类型，当智力认为， reflectively和对比，它与特定的科目，它是能够实现或正在实现，原因是indifferently的任何和所有他们。 This applicability of the abstract type to the individuals is its universality.这适用于抽象类型的个人是其普遍性。 (Mercier, "Critériologie", Louvain, 1906, p. 343). （梅西埃， “ critériologie ” ，鲁汶， 1906年， 343页） 。
II.二。 THE PRINCIPAL HISTORICAL FORMS OF NOMINALISM, REALISM, AND CONCEPTUALISM主要的历史形式的唯名，现实主义，和conceptualism
A. In Greek Philosophy答：在古希腊哲学
The conciliation of the one and the many, the changing and the permanent, was a favourite problem with the Greeks; it leads to the problem of universals.调解一个和许多人来说，改变和常驻，这是一个最喜欢的问题与希腊人;它导致的问题的共性。 The typical affirmation of Exaggerated Realism, the most outspoken ever made, appears in Plato's philosophy; the real must possess the attributes of necessity, universality, unity, and immutability which are found in our intellectual representations.典型的肯定，夸大现实，最敢言的不断进展，出现在柏拉图的哲学;真正必须具备的属性的必要性，普遍性，团结，这是不可改变发现在我们的智慧交涉。 And as the sensible world contains only the contingent, the particular, the unstable, it follows that the real exists outside and above the sensible world.作为理性的世界仅包含队伍，特别是，不稳定，因此，真正的存在，外界及以上明智的世界。 Plato calls it eîdos, idea.柏拉图称之为eîdos ，想法。 The idea is absolutely stable and exists by itself (óntos ón; autá kath' autá), isolated from the phenomenal world, distinct from the Divine and human intellect.想法是绝对稳定和存在本身（ óntos ón ; autá kath ' autá ） ，分离出惊人的世界，有别于神和人类的智慧。 Following logically the directive principles of his Realism, Plato makes an idea entity correspond to each of our abstract representations.以下逻辑指导原则，他的现实主义，柏拉图，使一个想法实体对应到我们每一个摘要交涉。 Not only natural species (man, horse) but artificial products (bed), not only substances (man) but properties (white, just), relations (double, triple), and even negations and nothingness have a corresponding idea in the suprasensible world.不仅自然物种（民，马） ，但人工产品（床） ，而不是只有物质的（男子） ，但性能（白，公正） ，关系（双重，三重） ，甚至否定和虚无有一个相应的想法，在suprasensible世界。 "What makes one and one two, is a participation of the dyad (dúas), and what makes one one is a participation of monad (mónas)in unity" (Phædo, lxix). “什么使一和一两个，是一个参与的二分体（ dúas ） ，以及什么使一，一个是参与的Monad （ mónas ）在团结” （ phædo ， lxix ） 。 The exaggerated Realism of Plato, investing the real being with the attributes of the being in thought, is the principal doctrine of his metaphysics.夸张的现实主义的柏拉图，投资的实质正在与属性的是在思想，是主要的学说，他的形而上学。
Aristotle broke away from these exaggerated views of his master and formulated the main doctrines of Moderate Realism.亚里士多德脱离这些夸大的意见，他的主人，制定了主要的理论温和的现实主义。 The real is not, as Plato says, some vague entity of which the sensible world is only the shadow; it dwells in the midst of the sensible world.真正的，并非如柏拉图说，一些模糊的实体，其中明智的世界是唯一的阴影;它驻留在中理智的世界。 Individual substance (this man, that horse) alone has reality; it alone can exist.个别物质（这名男子，即马） ，仅现实，它可以单独存在。 The universal is not a thing in itself; it is immanent in individuals and is multiplied in all the representatives of a class.世界是没有的事，本身，它是上苍在个人和乘以在所有代表的一类。 As to the form of universality of our concepts (man, just), it is a product of our subjective consideration.至于形式的普遍性，我们的观念（男子，公正） ，是一种产品，它是我们的主观考虑。 The objects of our generic and specific representations can certainly be called substances (ousíai), when they designate the fundamental reality (man) with the accidental determinations (just, big); but these are deúterai ousíai (second substances), and by that Aristotle means precisely that this attribute of universality which affects the substance as in thought does not belong to the substance (thing in itself); it is the outcome of our subjective elaboration.对象，我们一般和具体的交涉，当然可以被称为物质（ ousíai ） ，当他们指定的根本现实（男子）与意外的裁定（公正，大） ;但这些都是deúterai ousíai （第二物质） ，以及由亚里士多德手段，正是这一属性的普遍性影响的实质内容，作为在思想不属于该物质（的事，本身） ;这是结果，我们的主观解释。 This theorem of Aristotle, which completes the metaphysics of Heraclitus (denial of permanent) by means of that of Parmenides (denial of change), is the antithesis of Platonism, and may be considered one of the finest pronouncements of Peripateticism.这个定理的亚里士多德，完成了形而上学的赫拉克利特（拒绝永久）的方式，即巴门尼德（拒绝更改） ，是柏拉图主义的对立面，并有可能被视为一个最优秀的言论的peripateticism 。 It was through this wise doctrine that the Stagyrite exercised his ascendency over all later thought.正是通过这一明智的学说认为， stagyrite行使其ascendency所有后来的思想。
After Aristotle Greek philosophy formulated a third answer to the problem of universals, Conceptualism.后亚里士多德的希腊哲学，制定了第三个答案的问题的共性， conceptualism 。 This solution appears in the teaching of the Stoics, which, as is known, ranks with Platonism and Aristoteleanism among the three original systems of the great philosophic age of the Greeks.这个解决方案出现在教学的stoics ，其中，众所周知，职级与柏拉图和aristoteleanism三者之间原有的制度，伟大的哲学时代的希腊人。 Sensation is the principle of all knowledge, and thought is only a collective sensation.轰动的原则，就是所有的知识，以为只是一个集体的感觉。 Zeno compared sensation to an open hand with the fingers separated; experience or multiple sensation to the open hand with the fingers bent; the general concept born of experience to the closed fist.芝诺相比，感觉一个开放，一方面与手指分开;经验或多重轰动，以开放，一方面与手指弯曲;一般概念出生的经验，向封闭的拳头。 Now, concepts, reduced to general sensations, have as their object, not the corporeal and external thing reached by the senses (túgchanon), but the lektóon or the reality conceived; whether this has any real value we do not know.现在，观念，减少到一般的感觉，作为其对象，而不是有形的和外部的东西所达成的感官（ túgchanon ） ，但lektóon或现实的构想;这是否有任何真正的价值，我们不知道。 The Aristotelean School adopted Aristotelean Realism, but the neo-Platonists subscribed to the Platonic theory of ideas which they transformed into an emanationistic and monistic concepton of the universe.该aristotelean学校通过aristotelean现实，但新platonists订阅了柏拉图式的理论构思，他们转化为一个emanationistic和monistic concepton的宇宙。
B. In the Philosophy of the Middle Ages b.在哲学，中世纪
For a long time it was thought that the problem of universals monopolized the attention of the philosophers of the Middle Ages, and that the dispute of the Nominalists and Realists absorbed all their energies.在相当长的时间，据认为，问题的共性垄断注意哲学家的中世纪，并且该争端的nominalists和现实主义者吸收了其所有的精力。 In reality that question, although prominent in the Middle Ages, was far from being the only one dealt with by these philosophers.在现实的问题，虽然突出，在中世纪，是远远没有得到唯一的一处理这些哲学家。
(1) From the commencement of the Middle Ages till the end of the 12th century.--It is impossible to classify the philosophers of the beginning of the Middle Ages exactly as Nominalists, Moderate and Exaggerated Realists, or Conceptualists. （ 1 ）从生效中世纪到年底的12世纪.--是不可能的分类哲学家开始中世纪完全一样nominalists ，温和的和夸张的现实主义者，或conceptualists 。 And the reason is that the problem of the Universals is very complex.其原因是这个问题的共性是非常复杂的。 It not merely involves the metaphysics of the individual and of the universal, but also raises important questions in ideology--questions about the genesis and validity of knowledge.它不仅涉及到形而上学的个人和普遍，但也提出了一些重要的问题，在意识形态-问题的成因和有效性的知识。 But the earlier Scholastics, unskilled in such delicate matters, did not perceive these various aspects of the problem.但较早前scholastics ，非熟练工人在这种微妙的事项，没有察觉到这些问题的各个方面。 It did not grow up spontaneously in the Middle Ages; it was bequeathed in a text of porphyry's "Isagoge", a text that seemed simple and innocent, though somewhat obscure, but one which force of circumstances made the necessary starting-point of the earliest medieval speculations about the Universals.它没有成长，自发地在中世纪，这是留下的在一个文本斑岩的“ isagoge ” ，一个文本似乎简单和无辜的，虽然有点模糊，但其中武力的情况下作出了必要的出发点最早中世纪的揣测，有关的共性。
Porphyry divides the problem into three parts:斑岩型划分的问题，分为三个部分：
Do genera and species exist in nature, or do they consist in mere products of the intellect?这样做属种中存在的性质，或他们是否构成仅仅在产品的智力？
If they are things apart from the mind, are they coporeal or incorporeal things?如果他们的东西，除了头脑，他们coporeal的或无形的东西呢？
Do they exist outside the (individual) things of sense, or are they realized in the latter?他们存在以外的（个人）的东西，某种意义上说，或是他们意识到在后者呢？
"Mox de generibus et speciebus illud quidem sive subsistant sive in nudis intelluctibus posita sint, sive subsistentia corporalia sint an incorporalia, et utrum separata a senaibilibus an in sensibilibus posita er circa haec subsistentia, decere recusabo." “的MOX德generibus等speciebus illud quidem sive subsistant sive在nudis intelluctibus posita圣， sive subsistentia corporalia圣一incorporalia等utrum separata一senaibilibus一在sensibilibus posita呃circa haec subsistentia ， decere recusabo ” 。 Historically, the first of those questions was discussed prior to the others: the latter could have arisen only in the event of denying an exclusively subjective character to universal realities.从历史上看，首先，这些问题的讨论之前，向他人：后者可能出现的，只有在事件无可否认，完全是主观的性格普遍的现实。 Now the first question was whether genera and species are objective realities or not: sive subsistant, sive in nudis intellectibus posita sint?现在第一个问题是，是否属种是客观现实或不： sive subsistant ， sive在nudis intellectibus posita圣？ In other words, the sole point in debate was the absolute reality of the universals: their truth, their relation to the understanding, was not in question.在其他的话，唯一的一点，在辩论中是绝对现实的共性：他们的真理，他们的关系的理解，是不是有问题。 The text from Porphyry, apart from the solution he elsewhere proposed in works unknown to the early Scholastics, is an inadequate statement of the question; for it takes account only of the objective aspect and neglects the psychological standpoint which alone can give the key to the true solution.案文从斑岩，除了从解决方案，他建议在其他地方的工程未知，以早日scholastics ，是一个不足声明的问题;顾及它不仅是客观方面而忽略了心理的立场，只有这样才能让关键是要真正的解决办法。 Moreover, Porphyry, after proposing his triple interrogation in the "Isagoge", refuses to offer an answer (dicere recusabo).此外，斑岩后，提出他的三重盘问，在“ isagoge ” ，拒绝提供一个答案（ dicere recusabo ） 。 Boëthius, in his two commentaries, gives replies that are vague and scarecely consistent. boëthius ，在他的两个评论，给的答复是含糊和scarecely一致的。 In the second comentary, which is the more important one, he holds that genera and species are both subsistentia and intellecta (1st question), the similarity of things being the basis (subjectum) both of their individuality in nature and their universality in the mind: that genera and species are incorporeal not by nature but by abstraction (2nd question), and that they exist both inside and outside the things of sense (3rd question).在第二次comentary ，这是更重要的一个，他认为，属种，都是subsistentia和intellecta （第一问题） ，相似的东西的基础上（ subjectum ）都在自己的个性的性质和其普遍性，在心中：属种是无形资产而不是性质，而是由抽象（第二问题） ，以及它们存在的内外的东西，意识（第三问题） 。
This was not sufficiently clear for beginners, though we can see in it the basis of the Aristotlean solution of the problem.这是不够清楚，对于初学者，虽然我们可以看到，在它的基础上的aristotlean问题的解决。 The early Scholastics faced the problem as proposed by Porphyry: limiting the controversy to genera and species, and its solutions to the altenatives suggested by the first question: Do objects of concepts (ie, genera and species) exist in nature (subsistentia), or are they mere abstractions (nuda intelecta)?早期scholastics所面临的问题所提出的斑岩：限制争议属种，其解决方案，以altenatives所提出的第一个问题：这样做的物体的概念（即属，种）中存在的性质（ subsistentia ） ，或他们仅仅是抽象的（ nuda intelecta ） ？ Are they, or are they not, things?是他们，或他们没有，东西呢？ Those who replied in the affirmative got the name of Reals or Realists; the others that of Nominals or Nominalists.这些谁了肯定的回答得到的名称里亚尔或现实主义者;他人的nominals或nominalists 。 The former or the Realist, more numerous in the early Middle Ages (Fredugisus, Rémy d'Auxerre, and John Scotus Eriugena in the ninth century, Gerbert and Odo of Tournai in the Tenth, and William of Chapeaux in the twelfth) attribute to each species a universal essence (subsistentia), to which all the subordinate individuals are tributary.前，或写实，多在中世纪早期（ fredugisus ， rémy -欧塞尔，约翰司各脱e riugena在第九世纪， g erbert和o do的图尔奈在第十届，和威廉起首在第十二届）属性，以每物种的一个普遍的本质（ subsistentia ） ，这是所有下属的个人支流。 The Nominalists, who should be called rather the anti-Realists, assert on the contrary that the individual alone exists, and that the universals are not things realized in the universal state in nature, or subsistentia.该nominalists ，应由谁，而不是所谓的反现实主义者，断言，与此相反，该个别单独存在，并认为共性是没有的事情，实现在世界国家的性质，或subsistentia 。 And as they adopt the alternative of Porphyry, they conclude that the universals are nuda intellecta (that is, purely intellectual representations).和他们采取的替代斑岩，他们得出结论认为，共性是nuda intellecta （即是纯粹的智力交涉） 。
It may be that Roscelin of Compiègne did not go beyond these energetic protest against Realism, and that he is not a Nominalist in the exact sense we have attributed to the word above, for we have to depend on others for an expression of his views, as there is extant no text of his which would justify us in saying that he denied the intellect the power of forming general concepts, distinct in their nature from sensation.它可能是罗瑟兰的compiègne并未超越这些充满活力的抗议，现实主义，他是不是一个nominalist在确切的意义上，我们归咎于字以上的，我们要依赖他人，为表达他的看法，有没有现存的文本，他将证明我们在说，他否认了智力的权力形成的一般概念，在其独特的性质，从轰动。 Indeed, it is difficult to comprehend how Nominalism could exist at all in the Middle Ages, as it is possible only in a sensist philosophy that denies all natural distinction between sensation and the intellectual concept.事实上，这是很难理解如何唯可能存在于所有在中世纪，因为它是可能只有在一个sensist哲学否认所有自然之间的区别感觉和智力的概念。 Futhermore there is little evidence of Sensism in the Middle Ages, and, as Sensism and Scholasticism, so also Nominalism and Scholasticism are mutually exclusive.此外，很少有证据的sensism在中世纪，而且，正如sensism和士林，所以也唯和士林是互相排斥的。 The different anti-Realist system anterior to the thirteenth century are in fact only more or less imperfect forms of the Moderate Realism towards which efforts of the first period were tending, phases through which the same idea passed in its organic evolution.不同的反现实主义的制度前，以13世纪是在事实上，只有更多或更少不完善形式的温和现实主义的实现而努力，第一期分别为抚育，分阶段通过相同的理念通过在其有机的演变。 These stages are numerous, and several have been studied in recent monograph (eg the doctrine of Adélard of Bath, of Gauthier de Mortagne, Indifferentism, and the theory of the collectio).这些阶段的很多，和几个已经在最近的研究专着（如学说adélard巴斯，哥西尔德mortagne ， indifferentism ，以及理论研究collectio ） 。 The decisive stage is marked by Abélard, (1079-1142), who points out clearly the role abstraction, and how we represent to ourselves elements common to different things, capable of realization in an indefinite number of individuals of the same species, while the individual alone exists.决定性的阶段，其标志是阿伯拉尔， （ 1079年至1142年） ，谁指出明确的角色抽象，以及我们如何代表自己的要素的共同不同的东西，能够实现在一个无限期的一些个人的同一品种，而个别单独存在。 From that to Moderate Realism there is but a step; it was sufficient to show that a real fundamentum allows us to attribute the general represention to individual thing.从这个温和的现实主义，但有一个步骤，这是足以显示一个真正的“基础，让我们的属性一般represention个别的事。 It is impossibe to say who was the first in the twelfth century to develop the theory in its entirety.这是impossibe说谁是第一，在12世纪发展的理论，在其全部内容。 Moderate Realism appears fully in the writing of John of Salisbury.温和的现实主义，似乎完全在写作约翰梳士巴利。
C. From the thirteenth Century c.从13世纪
In the thirteenth century all the great Scholastics solved the problem of the universals by the theory of Moderate Realism (Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, Duns Scotus), and are thus in accord with Averroes and Avicenna, the great Arab commentators of Aristotle, whose works hasd recently passed into circulation by means of tranlations.在13世纪所有的伟大scholastics解决了这个问题的共性，由理论温和的现实主义（托马斯阿奎那，文德，邓司各脱） ，因而在与averroes和阿维森纳，伟大的阿拉伯评论家亚里士多德，其工程hasd最近通过的流通方式tranlations 。 St. Thomas formulates the doctrine of Moderate Realism in precise language, and for that reason alone we can give the name of Thomistic Realism to this doctrine (see below).圣托马斯制订的原则，温和的现实主义在精确的语言，和基于这个原因，仅我们可以给的名称thomistic现实主义到这一学说（见下文） 。 With William of Occam and the Terminist School appear the strictly conceptualist solution of the problem.与威廉occam和terminist学校的出现，严格conceptualist问题的解决。 The abstract and universal concept is a sign (signum), also called a term (terminus; hence the name Terminism given to the system), but it has no real value, for the absract and the universl do not exist in any way in nature and have no fundamentum outside the mind.抽象和普遍的概念是一个迹象， （ Signum的） ，也称为任期（总站;由此得名terminism考虑到系统） ，但它没有真正的价值，为摘要和universl不存在以任何方式在性质上并没有“基础以外的主意。 The universal concept (intentio secunda) has as it object internal representations, formed by the understanding, to which nothing external corresponding can be attributed.普遍的概念（ intentio塞康达） ，因为它的对象内部交涉，所形成的理解，而没有相应的外部可归咎于。 The role of the universals is to serve as a label, to hold the place (supponere) in the mind of multitude of things which it can be attributed.作用的共性是充当一个标签，举行的地点（ supponere ）在心中的千头万绪的事情，这可以归因。 Occam's Conceptualism would be frankly subjectivistic, if, together with the abstract concepts which reach the individual thing, as it exists in nature. occam的conceptualism会坦白subjectivistic ，如果，再加上抽象的概念，达到个人的事，因为它存在于大自然。
D. In Modern and Contemporary Philosophy d.在现代和当代哲学
We find an unequivocal affirmation of Nominalism in Positivism.我们找到一个明确的肯定，唯在实证。 For Hume, Stuart Mill, Spencer, and Taine there is strictly speaking no universal concept.为休谟，斯图亚特轧机，斯宾塞，和丹纳有严格来说，没有通用的概念。 The notion, to which we lend universality, is only a collection of individual perceptions, a collective sensation, "un nom compris" (Taine), "a term in habitual association with many other particular ideas" (Hume), "un savoir potentiel emmagasiné" (Ribot).的概念，这是我们贷款的普遍性，只不过是收集个人的看法，一个集体的感觉， “联合国的名称compris ” （丹纳） ， “任期在惯常协会与其他许多特别的想法” （休谟） ， “联合国莎威尔潜能emmagasiné “ （ ribot ） 。 The problem of the correspondence of the concept to reality is thus at once solved, or rather it is suppressed and replaced by the psycological question: What is the origin of the illusion that induces us to attribute a distinct nature to the general concept, though the latter is only an elaborated sensation?问题的信件的概念，以现实情况是，因此，一旦解决，或者更确切地说，它是镇压和所取代的心理问：什么是原产地的假象，诱使我们属性的一个独特性质的一般概念，虽然后者只是一个阐述了轰动效应？ Kant distinctly affirms the existence within us of abstract and general notions and the distinction between them and sensations, but these doctrines are joined with a characteristic Phonmenalism which constitutes the most original form of modern Conceptualism.康德明显申明的存在，在我们抽象的一般概念和两者之间的区别和轰动效应，但这些理论是同一个特点， phonmenalism构成最原始形式的现代conceptualism 。 Universal and necessary representations have no contact with external things, sinct they are produced exclusively by the structual functions (a priori forms) of our mind.普遍的和必要的交涉，有没有接触，与外部的东西， sinct他们制作完全由结构的职能（先验形式）我们的脑海。 Time and space, in which we frame all sensible impressions,cannot be obtained from expierence, which is individual and contigent; they are schemata which arise from our mental organization.时间和空间，在这方面，我们框所有明智的印象，不能获得从expierence ，这是个人和队伍，他们是图中出现的从我们的精神组织。 Consequently, we have no warrant for establishing a real correspondence between the world of reality.因此，我们没有手令，为建立一个真正的书信来往的世界现实。 Science, which is only an elaboration of the data of sense in accordance with other structural determinations of the mind (the categories), becomes a subjective poem, which has value only for us and not for a world outside us.科学，这是唯一一拟订的数据意识，按照与其他结构的测定，心（类别） ，成为一种主观的诗，其中的价值，只有我们，而不是一个我们以外的世界。 A modern form of Platonic or Exaggerated Realism is found in the ontologist doctrine defended by certain Catholic philosophers in the middle of the nineteenth century, and which consist in identifying the objects of universal ideas with the Divine ideas or the archetypes on which the world was fashioned.一个现代的形式，柏拉图或夸大的现实主义被发现在该ontologist学说所捍卫的某些天主教哲学家，在十九世纪中叶，其中包括在确定对象的普遍观念与神的想法或原型，即世界是过时。 As to Moderate Realism, it remains the doctrine of all those who have returned to Aristotleanism or adopted the neo-Scholastic philosophy.以温和的现实主义，它仍然是中庸所有这些谁已返回aristotleanism或通过了新士林哲学。
III.三。 THE CLAIMS OF MODERATE REALISM索赔温和的现实主义
This system reconciles the characteristics of external objects (particularity) with those of our intellectual representations (universality), and explains why science, though made up of abstract notions, is valid for the world of reality.这个系统核对的特点，外部对象（特殊性）与我们的智力交涉（普遍性） ，并解释了为什么科学，虽然取得了抽象的概念，有效期为世界的现实。 To understand this it suffices to grasp the real meaning of abstraction.明白这点，这足以把握实质意义的抽象。 When the mind apprehends the essence of a thing (quod quid est; tò tí en eînai), the external object is perceived without the particular notes which attach to it in nature (esse in singularibus), and it is not yet marked with the attribute of generality which reflection will bestow on it (esse in intellectu).当铭记apprehends的本质的东西（和块预测; tò tí英文eînai ） ，外部对象是知觉，没有特别注意到其中的重视，它在性质上（ esse在singularibus ） ，现在还不是显着与属性对一般性的，这反映了将赐给就它（ esse在intellectu ） 。 The abstract reality is apprehended with perfect indifference as regards both the individual state without and the universal state within: abstrahit ab utroque esse, secundum quam considerationem considerattur natura lapidis vel cujus cumque alterius, quantum ad ea tantum quæ per se competunt illi naturæ (St Tomas, "Quodlibeta", Q. i, a. 1).抽象的现实是，逮捕与完美的冷漠，至于双方个别国家没有和普遍状态： abstrahit抗体utroque esse ， secundum怎么considerationem considerattur的Natura lapidis或cujus cumque alterius ，量子广告环境唯一quæ本身competunt illi naturæ （圣托马斯“ quodlibeta ” ，问：我，答： 1 ） 。 Now, what is thus conceived in the absolute state (absolute considerando) is nothing else than the reality incarnate in any give individual: in truth, the reality, represented in my concept of man, is in Socrates or in Plato.现在，什么是构思，因此，在绝对的国家（绝对considerando ）是什么都没有比现实肉身在任何给予个别：在真理，现实，代表在我的概念男子，是在苏格拉底，柏拉图，或在。 There is nothing in the abstract concept that is not applicable to every individual; if the abstract concept is inadequate, because it does not contain the singular notes of each being, it is none the less faithful, or at least its abstract character does not prevent it from corresponding faithfully to the objects existing in nature.有没有在抽象的概念，并不适用于每一个人;若抽象的概念是不够的，因为它不包含奇异注意到，每一个被，这是没有少的忠实，或者至少是它的抽象性质并不妨碍它由相应的忠实对象中存在的性质。 As to the universal form of the concept, a moment's consideration shows that it is subsequent to the abstraction and is the fruit of reflection: "ratio speciei accidit naturæ humanæ".以普遍形式的概念，一个时刻的审议表明，这是以后的抽象，是果实的反思： “比speciei accidit naturæ humanæ ” 。 Whence it follows that the universality of the concept as such is the work purely of the intellect: "unde intellectus est qui facit universalitatem in rebus" (St. Thomas, "De ente et essentia," iv). whence这意味着普遍性的概念，这样的工作是纯粹的智力： “ unde intellectus预测qui facit universalitatem在rebus ” （圣托马斯， “德ente等essentia ， ”四） 。
Concerning Nominalism, Conceptualism, and Exaggerated Realism, a few general considerations must suffice.关于唯， conceptualism ，并夸大了现实，有几个一般性的考虑，必须是不够的。 Nominalism, which is irreconcilable with a spiritualistic philosophy and for that very reason with scholasticism as well, presupposes the ideological theory that the abstract concept does not differ essentially from sensation, of which it is only a transformation.唯，这是不可调和的一个spiritualistic哲学由于这一原因，与士林，以及，假定的思想理论认为，抽象的概念，并没有不同，基本上是从的感觉，它只是一个转型。 The Nominalism of Hume, Stuart Mill, Spencer, Huxley, and Taine is of no greater value than their ideology.该唯休谟，斯图亚特轧机，斯宾塞，赫胥黎，和泰纳是没有更大的价值比他们的意识形态。 The confound essentially distinct logical operations--the simple decomposition of sensible or empirical representations with abstraction properly so called and sensible analogy with the process of universalization.该混淆基本上是截然不同的逻辑运算-简单的分解明智的或实证交涉，抽象妥善所谓的和明智的类比的过程中的普遍性。 The Aristotleans recognize both of these mental operations, but they distinguish carefully between them.该aristotleans承认这两项行动的精神，但他们仔细分辨他们之间。 As to Kant, all the bounds that might connect the concept with the external world are destroyed in his Phenomenalism.至于康德，所有的界限可能连接的概念，与外部世界的被摧毁，在他的phenomenalism 。 Kant is unable to explain why one and the same sensible impression starts or sets in operation now this, now that category; his a priori forms are unintelligible according to his own principles, since they are beyond experience.康德是无法解释为什么同一个明智的印象，开始或套在运作，现在这个，现在这一类;他的先验形式是费解，据他自己的原则，因为它们是超越经验。 Moreover, he confuses real time and space, limited like the things they develop, with ideal or abstract time and space, which alone are general and without limit.此外，他混淆了真正的时间和空间，有限的一样的东西，他们的发展，与理想或抽象时间和空间，这仅是一般没有限制。 For in truth we do not create wholesale the object of our knowledge, but we beget it within us under the causal influence of the object that reveals itself to us.为在真相我们不创造批发的对象我们的知识，但我们带来它在我们下的因果影响的对象揭示本身给我们。 Ontologism, which is akin to Platonic Realism, arbitrarily identifies the ideal types in our intellect, which come to us from the sensible world by means of abstraction, with the ideal types consubstantial with the essence of God. ontologism ，这是类似柏拉图式的现实主义，随意确定的理想类型在我们的智慧，来把我们从理性的世界的手段抽象，具有理想类型consubstantial与上帝的本质。 Now, when we form our first abstract ideas we do not yet know God.现在，当我们的形式，我们首先抽象的想法我们还不知道上帝。 We are so ignorant of Him that we must employ these first ideas to prove a posteriori His existence.我们是如此无知，他说，我们必须聘用这些第一的思想，以证明事后，他的存在。 Ontologism has lived its life, and our age so enamoured of observation and experiment will scarcely return to the dreams of Plato. ontologism住了它的生命，而我们的年龄，使迷恋的观察和实验，将几乎返回到柏拉图的梦想。
Publication information Written by M. De Wulf.出版信息的书面由M.德伍尔夫。 Transcribed by Drake Woodside, Atom M. Eckhardt, and Yaqoob Mohyuddin.转录由德雷克林边，原子米eckhardt ，雅各布mohyuddin 。 The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XI.天主教百科全书，货量十一。 Published 1911. 1911年出版。 New York: Robert Appleton Company.纽约：罗伯特阿普尔顿公司。 Nihil Obstat, February 1, 1911. nihil obstat ， 1911年2月1日。 Remy Lafort, STD, Censor.的Remy lafort ，性病，检查员。 Imprimatur. imprimatur 。 +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York +约翰farley枢机主教，大主教，纽约
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