In contrast to the relative conservatism of earlier Buddhist schools, which adhered closely to the recognized teachings of the historical Buddha, Mahayana embraces a wider variety of practices, has a more mythological view of what a Buddha is, and addresses broader philosophical issues.相比之下，以相对保守的较早的佛教学校，坚持密切公认的教义历史佛陀，大乘包含了一个更多元化的做法，有更多的神话鉴于一个什么样的佛像，和地址更广泛的哲学问题。
Two major Mahayana schools arose in India: Madhyamika (Middle Path) and Vijñanavada (Consciousness Only; also known as Yogachara ).两大大乘学校出现在印度： 中观 （中间路线）和vijñanavada （只意识，也称为yogachara ） 。 With the spread of Mahayana Buddhism beyond India, other indigenous schools appeared, such as Pure Land Buddhism and Zen .与蔓延的大乘佛教超越印度外，其他土著学校出现了，如净土宗和禅宗 。
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Precisely when and where Mahayana arose in India is unclear, but its origin can be traced to between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD.正是在何时何地出现了大乘佛教在印度是不明确的，但它的起源可以追溯至二世纪和公元前一世纪的广告。 The early growth of Mahayana was promoted by Indian philosopher Nagarjuna, who founded the Madhyamika school.早期生长的大乘晋升为印度哲学家nagarjuna ，创立了中观学校。 His influential writings provide some of the most persuasive early formulations of Mahayana.他的有影响的著作提供了一些最有说服力的早期配方的大乘。 The Madhyamika school proliferated into a number of sects, and was carried to China in the early 5th century by Buddhist missionary Kumarajiva, who translated Nagarjuna's work into Chinese.在中观学校繁衍成若干教派，并进行了以中国在5世纪初，由佛教传教鸠摩罗什，谁翻译nagarjuna的工作成中文。 By 625 Madhyamika had reached Japan by way of Korea, though everywhere it remained more influential among the scholarly elite than the common people.由625名观已达到日本的方式，韩国，虽然到处仍具有影响力之间的学术精英比普通百姓。
The Pure Land school of Mahayana, based on the 1st-century Sukhavativyuha Sutra (Pure Land Sutra; a sutra is a writing that purports to record a discourse of the Buddha), was established in China in the 4th century by Chinese scholar Huiyuan, who formed a devotional society for meditating on the name of Amitabha Buddha (Buddha of Infinite Light). 净土学大乘的基础上，第1世纪无量寿经（净土经文;经文是一个书面说明意图来记录话语大佛） ，是在中国设立的，在4世纪由中国学者汇源，谁形成了灵学会沉思的名字弥陀佛（佛陀的无限轻） 。 This sect grew and spread through the 6th and 7th centuries, especially among the common people.本节长大繁育，然后通过第6次和第7次百年来，特别是普通百姓。
The Vijñanavada (Consciousness Only) school maintained that consciousness alone is real.该vijñanavada （意识） ，学校坚持认为意识仅是真实的。 Vijñanavada first arose in India about the 4th century and was taken to China two centuries later by Chinese monk and pilgrim Xuanzang (Hsuan-tsang). vijñanavada第一次出现在印度大约4世纪，被带到中国两个世纪后，由中国僧人和朝圣者玄奘（璇曾） 。 A Japanese disciple, Dosho, who arrived to study with him in 653, conveyed it to Japan.一位日本弟子， dosho ，抵达学习与他在653个，运送到日本。 A native Chinese Mahayana school, Avatamsaka (Huayan in Chinese), was established in the 7th century by Chinese monk Dushun around a Chinese translation of its basic text, the Avatamsaka Sutra (Garland Sutra).土生土长的中国大乘学校， avatamsaka （华燕中文） ，成立于公元7世纪，中国僧人dushun左右中文译本的，其基本文本， avatamsaka经文（加兰经文） 。 The school reached Korea in the late 7th century, and between 725 and 740 was carried to Japan, where it was known as Kegon.学校达成了韩国在晚7世纪之间，以及725和740进行了以日本，它被称为华严。 Another important Chinese school, the Tiantai (Tendai in Japanese), was founded by Chinese monk Zhiyi, who organized the entire Buddhist canon around the cardinal Mahayana scripture, the Saddharmapundarika Sutra (Lotus Sutra).另一项重要的中文学校，天台宗（天台宗日语） ，是由中国僧人志毅，世卫组织组织整个佛教佳能左右枢机大乘经文， saddharmapundarika经（法华经） 。 This school became very influential in China and Korea, and also in Japan, where it served as a means for introducing Pure Land doctrines.这所学校成了非常有影响力，在中国和韩国，并在日本，它是作为一种手段，引入净土教义。
The Mahayana school called Dhyana (Sanskrit for "meditation"; known in Chinese as Chan and in Japanese as Zen ) was supposedly introduced into China in 520 by Indian monk Bodhidharma, but actually arose from cross-fertilization between Mahayana and Chinese Daoism (Taoism). Chan split into a number of schools and was introduced into Korea and into Japan in the 7th century, though its full development occurred later.大乘学校所谓的禅宗 （梵语为"打坐" ;众所周知，在中国，作为陈和在日本作为禅宗 ） ，是假定传入中国，在520个印度僧人菩提达摩，但实际上产生的，从两岸之间的施肥大乘与中国道家（道教） 。陈分成了一些学校，并介绍到韩国和日本后，在公元7世纪，但其充分发展后，发生了。 Zen and Pure Land both spread into Vietnam (under Chinese rule at the time) in the 6th century.禅宗和净土都蔓延到越南（中国统治下，在时间）在50-59世纪。 Beginning in the 7th century the Indian form of Mahayana Buddhism was gradually introduced into Tibet (see Lamaism / Tibetan Buddhism).一开始，在公元7世纪，印度的大乘佛教是逐步推行到西藏（见喇嘛教/藏传佛教） 。
Mahayana thus was established as the dominant Buddhist school of East Asia by about the 7th century.大乘从而确立为主导的佛教学校，东亚大约公元7世纪。 Some Mahayana influences penetrated into Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and other Southeast Asian countries - for example, the great Cambodian monuments of Angkor Thum reflect a 12th-century Mahayana tradition.一些大乘的影响渗透到斯里兰卡，印尼和其他东南亚国家-例如，伟大的柬埔寨古迹吴哥窟的t hum反映1 2世纪大乘传统。 These influences were later superseded by Theravada, Hinduism, and Islam.这些影响，后来被取代theravada ，印度教和伊斯兰教。
Buddhism in China suffered persecution under the emperor Wuzong in 845, and subsequently was overshadowed by the state cult of Confucianism, but remained an integral part of Chinese life.佛教在中国遭受的迫害下，明武宗在845 ，随后被蒙上了由国家崇拜儒家思想，但仍然是一个不可分割的一部分，中国人的生活。 In Korea, where the Zen school (known as Son in Korean) had become dominant, Mahayana flourished in the Koryo period (935-1392), but was restricted under the Yi dynasty (1392-1910).在韩国，凡禅宗学校（俗称儿子在韩文版）已成为主导，大乘盛行，在高丽时期（ 935-1392 ） ，但仅限于根据李朝（ 1392-1910 ） 。 Japan supported a vibrant Mahayana culture, which after the 12th century gave rise to new Zen and Pure Land sects under such reformers as Japanese monks Dogen and Honen, as well as to Japan's only entirely indigenous Buddhist sect, Nichiren Buddhism.日本支持一个充满活力的大乘文化，其中后， 12世纪产生了新的禅宗和净土教派在这样的改革者，因为日本僧人dogen和honen ，以及作为日本唯一的完全土著佛教教派中，日莲佛法。 Japanese Mahayana lost much of its vitality in the Edo period (1600-1868), during which the Tokugawa shogunate used it for social control through registration of parishioners.日本大乘失去了不少活力，在江户时期（ 1600至1868年） ，在此期间德川幕府用它为社会控制通过登记的教友。 The anti-Buddhist policy of Japan's new rulers in the first decade following the Meiji Restoration of 1868 foreshadowed much of Mahayana's experience in the 20th century, in which Communist regimes in China, Vietnam, and North Korea prohibited worship, and in which the Chinese annexation of Tibet led to considerable persecution of Mahayana practitioners.反佛教的政策，日本新的统治者，在第一个十年以下明治维新后的1868年埋下许多大乘的经验，在20世纪，在这共产主义政权在中国，越南，朝鲜等违禁崇拜，其中中国并吞西藏导致相当多的迫害大乘练习者。 The easing of doctrinaire Communism led to a revival of Mahayana in some of these areas.缓解教条的共产主义，导致死灰复燃大乘在上述某些领域。 Mahayana has also spread into new territory with the growing popularity in the West of Zen and other Mahayana schools.大乘也蔓延到新的版图与日益普及，在西方的禅宗与其他大乘学校。
Although Mahayana monks generally follow the Buddhist rules of poverty and celibacy, some sects - notably the Japanese Shin sect of Pure Land Buddhism - permit clerical marriage.虽然大乘僧侣普遍遵循佛教的规则贫穷和独身，一些教派-尤其是日本新光节净土佛教-许可文书婚姻。 In pre-modern China, an aspiring monk was traditionally admitted on probation for one year before becoming a novice, often the limit of progress for those without government connections.在近代以前的中国，一个有抱负的和尚传统上承认接受感化一年前成为新闻，往往限制的进展，为那些没有政府的联系。 The unordained laity includes those who take the bodhisattva vow but who do not become monks: some may live as ordinary householders; others join religious communities with their own specific vows or Tantric initiations.该unordained俗人包括那些以菩萨发誓，但那些没有成为僧侣：有人可能会活到普通农户;他人加入宗教社团与自己的具体承诺或密宗项。
Relations between Mahayana sangha and governments have varied among countries with strong Mahayana traditions.关系大乘僧伽和政府有各种不同的国家之间具有强烈的大乘传统。 In the early Tang (T'ang) dynasty in China (7th and 8th centuries), Buddhism was organized under the state, with a government commissioner for religion.我国早在唐代（唐朝） ，王朝在中国（第7次和第8次世纪） ，佛教是有组织的状态下，同一个政府专员宗教。 However, beginning in 845, Chinese Buddhists were persecuted by the government.不过，一开始，在845名，中国佛教徒遭到迫害，由政府决定。 In Vietnam, after independence from Chinese rule was achieved in the 10th century, a Confucian bureaucracy continued to supervise monasteries.在越南，独立后，由中国统治，是实现10世纪，儒家思想，官僚主义继续监督寺庙。 In Japan, Buddhist temples were often powerful autonomous institutions with their own lands and armies of soldier-monks.在日本，佛教寺院往往被强大的自主机构，他们自己的土地上和军队中的士兵-僧侣。 After 1603 the Tokugawa regime took control of the temples and integrated them into the Japanese government.之后， 1603年德川政权，控制了寺庙，并综合他们到日本政府。
Mahayana generally offers more hope of enlightenment for the lay believer than Theravada: the compassionate bodhisattvas can supposedly transfer their merit to worshippers; Zen is notoriously disdainful of the formalities of creed and hierarchy; the Pure Land is an interim paradise on the road to salvation attainable by the pious.大乘通常会提供更多的希望的启示，为教友超过theravada ：富有同情心，菩萨可以假定转让其优异善信;禅宗已是尽人皆知的蔑视手续的信条和等级;净土，是一个临时的天堂，对得救的道路可以实现由虔诚。 Consequently, Mahayana lay movements have abounded through the centuries.因此，大乘奠定运动abounded经过数百年。 Pure Land sects in particular tend to actively evangelize.净土教派尤其倾向于积极教化。 In China, Pure Land groups were sometimes associated with secret societies and peasant revolts.在中国，净土组有时同秘密社团和农民起义。 In Japan, Pure Land Buddhism became the people's version of Buddhism and periodically spawned millenarian movements (movements that looked for the establishment of an earthly paradise).在日本，净土宗，成为人民版的佛教，并定期衍生出千禧年运动（运动，寻求建立一个人间天堂） 。 The Japanese Nichiren sect also focused on the common people and produced many lay societies of worshippers.日本日莲节还侧重于普通百姓，并产生了许多业外人士社团的信徒。 The extreme of Mahayana lay participation is perhaps Japan's Sôka Gakkai movement, an entirely lay group with definite secular aims and a policy of aggressive evangelization.极端的大乘奠定参与也许是日本的sôka学会运动，完全是打好小组与世俗明确的目标和政策的咄咄逼人的福传工作。
Mahayana attitudes toward Buddhist teachings are in part a consequence of the Mahayana view of the Buddha.大乘态度佛教的教义有一部分是一个后果，大乘观佛的法身。 Whereas Theravadins regarded the Buddha as a supremely enlightened man, most Mahayana thought treats him as a manifestation of a divine being.而theravadins把佛像作为一个重千钧开明的人，最大乘思想对待，他是一个表现神的福祉。 This view was formalized as the doctrine of the threefold nature, or triple body (trikaya), of the Buddha.这个观点的是形式化作为学说的三重性质，或三联体（ trikaya ） ，佛的法身。 The Buddha's three bodies are known as the body of essence (dharmakaya), the sum of the spiritual qualities that make him Buddha; the body of communal bliss, or enjoyment body (sambhoga-kaya), a godlike form revealed to the Mahayana initiate during contemplation; and the body of transformation (nirmana-kaya), a mortal body that appears in the transient world of death and rebirth to lead sentient beings (beings that possess senses) to enlightenment.佛陀的三具尸体被称为人体的本质（ dharmakaya ） ，总和的精神特质，使他成佛;尸体公用极乐世界，或享受身体（ sambhoga -克耶邦） ，一个神圣的形式透露给大乘期间发起沉思;和身体的转变（ nirmana -克耶邦） ，一个致命的身体会出现在短暂的世界中的死亡与重生，带领感觉的人（被认为具有感官） ，以启迪。 The body of communal bliss appears in various manifestations, notably that of the five cosmic Buddhas, the eternal Buddhas that comprise and sustain the cosmos: Vairocana, Aksobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha (or Amida), and Amoghasiddhi.身体的公用布利斯出现在各种表现形式，尤其是在五间宇宙佛像，佛像永恒的组成和维持宇宙：毗卢遮那佛， aksobhya ， ratnasambhava ，弥陀（或弥陀） ，并amoghasiddhi 。 The body of essence is seen as the universal ground of being, revealed for many Mahayana believers in the Lotus Sutra; other sects regard it as present within oneself and accessible through meditation.身体的本质被看作是普遍的地面被发现，对许多大乘信徒在法华经;其他宗派把它作为当前内部自己，并通过打坐。 The historical Buddha is believed to be one transformation body emanated by the body of essence.历史佛陀相信是一个转型的身体所产生的身体的本质。 Consequently, his teachings can be supplemented or superseded by further revelations.因此，他的教诲，可以补充或取代了进一步的揭露。
Mahayana posits an infinite number of Buddhas, or transformation bodies and enjoyment bodies of the essential Buddha, appearing in innumerable worlds to help sentient beings reach enlightenment.大乘posits无限多的佛像，或转型，机构和团体享有的各项基本佛像，出现在无数次的世界，以帮助情而达成的启迪。 These Buddhas are paralleled by bodhisattvas, enlightened beings who, through compassion, delay their final passage to the transcendent state of nirvana in order to labor on behalf of universal salvation.这些佛像是平行的菩萨，开明的人，他们通过同情心，延误了他们的最后通过，以超越国家的涅盘，以劳动密集型代表普遍救赎。 A bodhisattva can transfer his supreme merit to others, and is thus regarded in Mahayana as superior to the arhat, the ideal Theravadin who has achieved enlightenment but can do little else for other beings.一菩萨可以转让自己的最高价值，以他人的，因此，这是不把大乘优越于该罗汉，最理想theravadin谁取得了启示，但可以做的很少，否则其他的人。 A Mahayana worshipper can aspire to become a bodhisattva, rising through ten stages of perfection, and approaching ever closer to Buddha's body of essence, until finally bodhisattva and essential Buddha are one.一大乘媚能够渴望成为菩萨，上涨10个阶段的完善，并接近以往任何时候都更接近佛的身体的本质，直到最后菩萨和必要的佛像是一。 Certain bodhisattvas are themselves worshipped as virtual deities.某菩萨，是自己崇拜的虚拟神佛。 These include Avalokiteshvara (Guanyin in China, where he came to be regarded as the female protector of women, children, and sailors), the personification of compassion, and Maitreya (the only bodhisattva also recognized by Theravadins), the future Buddha who waits in the Tsuhita Heaven to be reborn and lead all beings to enlightenment.这些措施包括avalokiteshvara （观音，在中国，在那里他来到被视为女性保护者的妇女，儿童和水手） ，人格化的同情心，以及弥勒（唯一菩萨也承认theravadins ） ，未来佛，他们在等待该tsuhita天上投胎，并导致所有的人以启迪。 Even the Buddha Amitabha, creator of the Pure Land who leads mortals to his paradise, began as a monk who became a bodhisattva.甚至佛祖阿弥陀佛，创造净土的人，导致凡人给他的天堂，开始了作为一名僧人，他们成了菩萨。
Another important Mahayana doctrine is the emptiness (sunyata) of all things.另一项重要的大乘论是空虚（ sunyata ）的所有东西。 In the formulation of Indian philosopher Nagarjuna, the familiar world of experience is the product of thought forms imposed on the Absolute, which is entirely unconditioned (not subject to limitations of any kind).在制订印度哲学家nagarjuna ，熟悉世界的经验，是产品的思想形式加诸于绝对的，这是完全无条件（不受到限制的任何种类） 。 These thought forms are the categories that reason creates in its attempt to apprehend the nature of reality.这些思想形式是类，因此造成了它试图逮捕的性质现实。 Since all phenomena in the world of experience depend upon these constructs of reason, they are purely relative and therefore ultimately unreal.因为所有的现象，在世界上的经验，取决于这些构造的原因，他们纯粹是相对的，因此，最终是不现实的。 The Absolute, on the other hand, is empty in the sense that it is totally devoid of artificial conceptual distinctions.绝对的，但另一方面，是空的，在这个意义上讲，它是完全没有人工的概念区分。 This teaching was variously interpreted, with the Vijñanavada school maintaining that nothing exists outside the mind.这种教学，是各种不同的解释，与vijñanavada学校坚持认为没有存在外界头脑。 The teaching's most influential version holds that there is an eternal, mutually sustaining dialectic between the Absolute and relative reality: although phenomena are false and void in absolute terms, they are true and real in relative terms.教学中的最有影响力的版本，认为是一个永恒的，相辅相成的辩证维持之间的绝对和相对的现实：尽管现象是虚假的和无效的，在绝对数量来看，他们是真正的和真实相对而言。 The Mahayana goal was to transcend these opposites in ultimate enlightenment.大乘目标是要超越这些对立的终极启示。 This doctrine made Zen and other schools turn from the practice of renunciation and withdrawal to embrace the world in the belief that nirvana could be found within the transience (samsara) of ordinary life.这一学说所作的禅宗与其他学校把从实践中的放弃和退出，去拥抱世界，相信涅槃，可以发现内部的瞬态（轮回）的普通生活。
Within the Buddhist tradition, Mahayana has produced important innovations in three principal areas.按照佛教传统，大乘已产生了重要的创新，在三个主要领域。 The first area concerns the spiritual goal of Buddhism.第一个领域涉及精神目标的佛法。 The ideal of the arhat (taught by the historical Buddha to his immediate disciples) was replaced in Mahayana by the bodhisattva ideal, regarded as superior and open to all followers.理想的罗汉（教所历史佛陀以他的切身弟子）所取代，在大乘经菩萨理想，但被视为优越，开放给所有的信徒。 Every person who professes Mahayana Buddhism can take the bodhisattva vow, which expresses the aspiration to attain enlightenment just as the Buddha did and to help all beings on their way to nirvana.每个人自称大乘佛教，可以采取菩萨发誓，它体现了心愿，以达到启示，正如佛陀当时并帮助所有的人对他们的方式来涅槃。 The bodhisattva path can be undertaken in either a monastic or a secular context, depending on individual circumstances.该菩萨路径可以在无论是寺院还是一个世俗的背景下，视乎个别情况而定。
The second area of Mahayana innovation concerns the interpretation of the Buddha's nature.第二个方面的大乘创新关切诠释佛陀的性质。 In addition to producing a systematic doctrine of the various Buddha bodies, Mahayana practitioners have accepted the existence of countless Buddhas who preside over countless universes.除了制作一个有系统的理论认识各种佛像机构，大乘练习者已经接受了存在的无数佛像，他们主持了无数的宇宙。 These divine beings are far different from the single supremely gifted yet mortal human sage whom Theravada Buddhists revere as the sole originator of their faith.这些神有很大的不同，从单一的重千钧天才，但致命的人类先哲其中theravada佛教徒尊崇作为唯一的发端侮辱他们的信仰。
The third area of Mahayana innovation covers doctrine and philosophy.第三方面的大乘创新涵盖理论和哲学。 Early Buddhists rejected the existence of any permanent self or soul (atman) and taught the no-soul (anatman) theory.早期佛教徒拒绝存在任何永久性自我或灵魂（阿特曼） ，并教无魂（ anatman ）理论。 However, they also accepted the reality of the elements (dharmas) of existence.然而，他们也接受了这个现实的要素（ dharmas ）的存在。 A famous example of this duality is the early Buddhist parable of the cart: the components of a cart exist, but the cart itself, being a mere concept, does not exist.一个著名的例子，这种双重性，是早期佛教寓言的购物车：组成一个购物车存在，但车本身，作为一个纯粹的概念，是不存在的。 Similarly, the components or aggregates of living beings exist, but the single permanent entity (atman) postulated as uniting them does not.同样，部件或聚集体的生物存在，但单永久实体（阿特曼）的假设，因为他们团结到没有。 The Mahayana sutras and their interpreters rejected this realistic and limited interpretation.大乘经典，以及他们的口译员拒绝了这一现实的和有限的解释。 They reaffirmed the nonexistence of the soul, but also denied the existence of the components.他们重申，不存在性的灵魂，而且也否认存在的组件。 They argued that since there is no permanent foundation beneath or within all things, the things themselves do not and indeed cannot exist.他们认为，既然没有永久地基下方，或在所有的事情，事情本身并不确实不能存在。 This doctrinal position is encapsulated in Madhyamika school's doctrine of sunyata, discussed earlier.这一理论的立场是包覆在中观学的学说sunyata ，前面所讨论的。 The concept of emptiness in its basic scope means that all things and their characteristics are deprived (empty) of reality and individual existence.这个概念的空虚，在它的基本范围，也就是说，所有的东西和他们的特征是被剥夺（空）的实际和个人的存在。 In its mystic dimensions, emptiness is seen as a meditational process through which one purges one's mind.在其神秘的尺寸，空虚，被视为是meditational过程中，通过其中一大清洗一个人的心。 The Vijñanavada school of Mahayana also accepted this notion, but for the purposes of spiritual practices taught that the mind alone exists and that the whole external world is an illusion projected by the mind.该vijñanavada学校的大乘也接受了这一概念，但为施行精神实践告诉我们，思想单独存在，并表示，整个外部世界，这是一种幻想，预计所铭记。 The dispelling of that illusion through meditation was presented as the path to enlightenment.消除这种错觉，透过打坐是作为道路的启迪。 In order to retain the basic assumption of Buddhism, the Vijñanavada school taught that after a full realization of the nature of all things, the mind dissolves in emptiness.为了保存基本假设的佛教， vijñanavada学校教导后，充分体现了大自然的一切事物，心溶化在空虚。
A final important Mahayana teaching, never embodied in a formal school but nonetheless permeating all layers of the Mahayana approach, concerns the Buddha nature (tathagata-garbha) of all living beings and their capacity to become Buddhas.最后一个重要大乘教学中，从来没有体现在一个正规的学校，但却渗透到所有层的大乘办法，涉及佛性（如来- garbha ）的所有生物，以及其能力，成为佛。 Although certain isolated texts taught that some living beings are barred from deliverance, Mahayana Buddhism maintains that any sentient thing can gain Buddhahood-that gods, humans, and animals alike have the seeds of Buddha nature within them.虽然某些孤立的文本告诉我们一些生活的人都是被禁止的解脱，大乘佛教主张任何感觉的东西，可以得到成佛，即神，人类与动物的，都对种子的佛性之内。
Theravada Buddhism theravada佛教
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