Scottish Realism was a popular movement in eighteenth and nineteenth century Britain, which attempted to overcome the epistemological, metaphysical, and moral skepticism of the Enlightenment philosophy of David Hume (1711 - 76) with a philosophy of common sense and natural realism.苏格兰现实主义是一个受欢迎的运动，在第十八和十九世纪的英国，试图克服的认识论，形而上学，道德持怀疑态度的启示哲学大卫休谟（ 1711 -7 6岁）与哲学常识和自然的现实主义。 The founder of Scottish Realism was a moderate (as opposed to evangelical) Presbyterian clergyman, Thomas Reid (1710 - 96), born in Strachan, Kincardineshire, and educated at Marischal College.创始人苏格兰现实主义是一个温和的（如反对福音事工促进会）长老会牧师，托马斯里德（ 1710 -9 6） ，出生在斯特拉， k incardineshire，和受过教育的在马歇尔学院。 He became professor at King's College, Aberdeen, in 1751.他成为教授的国王学院，香港仔，在1751年。 Reid was disturbed by studying Hume's Treatise of Human Nature (1739), which he thought denied the objective reality of external objects, the principle of causation, and the unity of the mind.里德感到不安的研究休谟的论文人性（ 1739年） ，他认为否认的客观现实的外部对象，原则，因果关系和团结精神。 In answer, Reid wrote An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense in 1764, and the same year was appointed professor in Glasgow.在回答，里德写了调查人的头脑对原则的共同意识，在1764年，同年被任命为教授在格拉斯哥。 In 1785, he wrote Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man, and in 1788, Essays on the Active Powers of Man.在1785年，他撰写的论文对智力的权力男子，并在1788年，散文就积极的权力的人。
Reid traced Hume's skepticim to what he considered a common fallacy in the great philosophers Descartes, Locke, and Berkeley: representational idealism, which postulates that "the mind knows not things immediately, but only by the intervention of the ideas it has of them" (Essay on Intellectual Powers, IV,4,3).里德追溯到休谟的skepticim什么，他认为一个共同的谬论，在伟大的哲学家笛卡尔，洛克，柏克莱：具有代表性的唯心论，这假设的“头脑不知道的东西，立即，但只能由干预的想法有他们” （本文对智力的权力，四， 4,3 ） 。 That is, ideas are an intermediary between the mind and things, which prevents direct knowledge of the actual things, so that we do not immediately know the external reality in itself, but only the idea (or representation or impression) that it causes in us.也就是说，思想是一个中介之间的思想和事情，以防止直接了解实际的东西，使我们不立即知道，外部的现实本身，但只有理念（或代表或展示） ，它的根源在我们。
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Dugald Stewart (1753 - 1828), professor at Edinburgh and a distinguished successor of Reid, laid more stress on observation and inductive reasoning, and subscribed to an empiricist approach to psychology. dugald史都华（ 1753 -1 828） ，教授，爱丁堡和一位杰出的继任里德，奠定了更加注重观察和归纳推理，并订阅了一个经验主义的做法，心理学。 Stewart's successor, Thomas Brown, moved even further in an empiricist direction, and is considered a bridge between Scottish Realism and the empiricism of JS Mill.史都华的继任者，托马斯布朗，甚至进一步提出在一经验主义的方向，被认为是苏格兰之间的桥梁，现实主义和经验主义的js轧机。 Sir William Hamilton (1791 - 1856), Edinburgh professor, attempted the impossible task of uniting the epistemologies of Reid and Kant (who tried to meet the skepticism of Hume in an entirely different way, by asserting that unity and structure are imposed upon the phenomena of sensation by forms in the mind).主席先生威廉汉密尔顿（ 1791 -1 856） ，爱丁堡教授，企图不可能的任务，团结e pistemologies的里德和康德（谁试图以满足怀疑休谟在一个完全不同的方式，声称团结和结构强加现象感觉由形式在头脑） 。 JS Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy administered an empiricist death blow to Scottish Realism. js轧机的考试爵士威廉汉密尔顿的管理哲学一个经验主义者死亡的打击，苏格兰的现实主义。 Empiricism in Britain and idealism in Germany drove realism from the field.在英国经验主义和理想主义在德国开车的现实主义从外地。
The Scottish philosophy, however, had wide and profound effects.苏格兰哲学，不过，进行了广泛和深远的影响。 Royer - Collard, Cousin, and Jouffroy gave it wide circulation in early nineteenth century France. royer -c ollard，表姐， j ouffroy了广泛流通，在十九世纪初，法国。 Sydney Ahlstrom has shown that it exercised supreme influence over American theological thought in the nineteenth century.悉尼Ahlstrom在表明它行使最高法院的影响力超过美国的神学思想，在十九世纪。 While it has long been recognized that the conservative Calvinist theologians of Princeton adopted Scottish Realist epistemology wholesale.而一直以来，认识到保守的神学家calvinist普林斯顿通过现实主义的认识论苏格兰批发。 Ahlstrom demonstrates a less noted fact: moderate Calvinists of Andover, liberals of Yale, and Unitarians of Harvard were also deeply indebted to the same commonsense realism. Ahlstrom在显示较少注意到一个事实：温和calvinists的andover ，自由派的耶鲁大学，和unitarians哈佛人，也深深感激，同时现实主义的常识。 Thus it provided the epistemological structure utilized by both "liberals" and "conservatives" in nineteenth century America.因此，它提供了认识论的结构，利用这两个“民主派”和“保守派”在十九世纪的美国。
DF
Kelly基金凯利
(Elwell Evangelical Dictionary)
（ elwell福音事工促进会，字典）
Bibliography
参考书目
T Reid, Works,
Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man, and Philosophical Orations; SE
Ahlstrom, "The Scottish Philosophy and American Theology," CH 24; S Grave, The
Scottish Philosophy of Common Sense; R Metz, A Hundred Years of British
Philosophy; J McCosh, The Scottish Philosophy; A Seth, Scottish Philosophy; JS
Mill, Collected Works, IX.里德吨，工程，散文对智力的权力的男子，和哲学orations
;本身Ahlstrom在“苏格兰哲学和神学，美国， ”您的24条; s严重，苏格兰哲学的普通常识; r梅斯，百年英国哲学; j mccosh
，苏格兰哲学;塞思，苏格兰哲学; js轧机，收集工程，九。
I. SCOTISM一， scotism
This is the name given to the philosophical and theological system or school named after John Duns Scotus.这是名义给予的哲学和神学系统或学校命名后，约翰邓司各脱。 It developed out of the Old Franciscan School, to which Haymo of Faversham (d. 1244), Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), John of Rupella (d. 1245), William of Melitora (d. 1260), St. Bonaventure (d. 1274), Cardinal Matthew of Aquasparta (d. 1289), John Pecham (d. 1292), Archbishop of Canterbury, Richard of Middletown (d. about 1300), etc. belonged.它发展出来的旧方济各学校，其中haymo的faversham （四1244年） ，亚历山大黑尔斯（四1245 ） ，约翰rupella （四1245年） ，威廉melitora （四1260年） ，圣文德（四1274 ） ，枢机主教马修的aquasparta （四1289 ） ，约翰pecham （四1292 ） ，坎特伯雷大主教理查德的middletown （四约1300年）等属于。 This school had at first but few peculiarities; it followed Augustinism (Platonism), which then ruled theology, and which was adopted not only by the Parisian professors belonging to the secular clergy (William of Auvergne, Henry of Ghent, etc.), but also by prominent teachers of the Dominican Order (Roland of Cremona, Robert Fitzacker, Robert of Kilwardby, etc.).这所学校已在第一，但数的特殊性，它遵循的augustinism （柏拉图） ，然后裁定，神学，并获得通过，不仅是由巴黎的教授，属于世俗的神职人员（威廉奥佛涅，亨利的根特，等） ，但也突出的教师，多米尼加秩序（罗兰的克雷莫纳，罗伯特fitzacker ，罗伯特的基尔沃比等） 。 These theologians knew and utilized freely all the writings of Aristotle, but employed the new Peripatetic ideas only in part or in an uncritical fashion, and intermingled with Platonic elements.这些神学家知道和利用自由的所有的著作，亚里士多德，但聘用新的巡回想法只在部分或在一uncritical时尚，并且相互交织与柏拉图的要素。 Albertus Magnus and especially St. Thomas (d. 1274) introduced Aristoteleanism more widely into Scholasticism.阿尔伯图斯思，尤其是圣托马斯（四1274 ）介绍了aristoteleanism更广泛地进入士林。 The procedure of St. Thomas was regarded as an innovation, and called forth criticism, not only from the Franciscans, but also from the secular doctors and even many Dominicans.程序圣托马斯被视为一个创新，并呼吁提出的批评，而不是只从济，而且还从世俗的医生，甚至很多多米尼加。 At this time appeared Scotus, the Doctor Subtilis, and found the ground already cleared for the conflict with the followers of Aquinas.在这个时候出现了司各脱，医生枯草杆菌，发现地面已经清除，为冲突的追随者阿奎那。 He made indeed very free use of Aristoteleanism, much freer than his predecessors, but in its employment exercised sharp criticism, and in important points adhered to the teaching of the Older Franciscan School -- especially with regard to the plurality of forms or of souls, the spiritual matter of the angels and of souls, etc., wherein and in other points he combatted energetically St. Thomas.他确实很可免费使用aristoteleanism ，更自由，比他的前任，但在其就业行使尖锐批评，并在重要的点，坚持以教学的老济学校-特别是关于多元化的形式或灵魂，精神的问题，天使和灵魂等，其中，和在其他各点，他大力打击圣托马斯。 The Scotism beginning with him, or what is known as the Later Franciscan School, is thus only a continuation or further development of the older school, with a much wider, although not exclusive acceptance of Peripatetic ideas, or with the express and strict challenge of the same (eg the view that matter is the principium individuationis).该scotism开始与他，或什么是被称为后来方济各学校，因此，只有继续或进一步发展，老年人学校，与更广泛的，虽然不是排他性的接受巡回思路，或与Express和严格的挑战同时， （如认为，无论是原理individuationis ） 。 Concerning the relation of these schools to each other, or the relation of Scotus to Alexander of Hales and St. Bonaventure, consult the work of the Flemish Recollect, M. Hauzeur.有关的关系，这些学校向对方，或关系司各脱，以亚历山大黑尔斯和圣文德，谘询工作的弗拉芒语区回忆，米hauzeur 。
Concerning the character and teaching of Scotus we have already spoken in the special article, where it was stated that he has been unjustly charged with Indeterminism, excessive Realism, Pantheism, Nestorianism, etc. What has been there said holds good of Scotism in general, the most important doctrines of which were substantially developed by Scotus himself.有关的性质和教学司各脱我们已说过，在特别的文章，其中有人指出，他一直是不公正的落案控以indeterminism ，过度的现实主义，泛神论，景教等什么一直有说，拥有良好的scotism在一般，最重要的学说，其中大幅开发的司各脱自己。 Little new has been added by the Scotists to the teaching of their master; for the most part, they have merely, in accordance with the different tendencies of the day, restated its fundamental position and defended it.小新已加入由scotists ，以教学硕士学位;为最部分，他们只是，按照各种不同的倾向一天，重申其基本立场和捍卫它。 It will be sufficient here to mention two works in which the most important peculiarities of the Scotist theology are briefly set forth and defended -- Johannes de Rada, "Controversiae theol. inter S. Thom. et Scotum" (1598- ); Kilian Kazen berger, "Assertiones centum ad mentem . . . Scoti" (new ed., Quaracehi, 1906).这将足以在这里提两个工程，在其中最重要的特殊性，该scotist神学简要阐述和捍卫-约翰内斯德雷达， “ c ontroversiaet heol。跨第托姆。 s cotum等” （ 1 598年- ）;克利安卡增大伯杰， “ assertiones 100广告mentem 。 。 。 scoti ” （新教育署， quaracehi ， 1906年） 。 Reference may, however, be made to the influence which Scotism exercised on the teaching of the Church (ie on theology).可参考，但是，作出的影响scotism行使对教学的教会（即神学） 。 It is especially noteworthy that none of the propositions peculiar to Scotus or Scotism has been censured by ecclesiastical authority, while the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception was soon accepted by all schools, orders, and theologians outside the Dominican Order, and was raised to a dogma by Pius IX.这是特别值得注意的是，没有主张特有的司各脱或scotism一直谴责教会的权力，而学说的圣母无染原罪的概念很快为大家所接受的学校，命令，和神学家以外的多米尼加秩序，是提高到一个教条由碧岳九。 The definition of the Council of Vienne of 1311 that all were to be regarded as heretics who declared "quod anima rationalis . . . non sit forma corporis humani per se et essentialiter" (the rational soul is not per se and essentially the form of the human body), was directed, not against the Scotist doctrine of the forma corporeitatis, but only against the erroneous view of Olivius; it is even more probable that the Scotists of the day suggested the passing of the Decree and formulated it (see B. Jansen, loc. cit., 289 sqq., 471 sqq.).定义理事会维埃纳省的1311年，所有被视为异端谁宣布“和阿尼玛rationalis 。 。 。静坐非形式上的corporis humani ％硒等essentialiter ” （理性的灵魂，是不是每SE和基本形式的人体） ，导演是，不反对scotist学说的形式上的corporeitatis ，但只是针对的错误观点， olivius ;这是更可能认为， scotists的天建议通过这项法令，并制定（见B.扬森，在上述引文中， 289 sqq ， 471 sqq ） 。
Nominalism is older than Scotus, but its revival in Occamism may be traced to the one-sided exaggeration of some propositions of Scotus.唯是年纪比司各脱，但其复苏在occamism可追溯到到一个片面夸大一些主张司各脱。 The Scotist Formalism is the direct opposite of Nominalism, and the Scotists were at one with the Thomists in combatting the latter; Occam himself (d. about 1347) was a bitter opponent of Scotus.该scotist形式主义，是直接相反，唯名，和scotists分别在1与thomists在打击后者; occam自己（四约1347 ）是一个惨痛的对手司各脱。 The Council of Trent defined as dogma a series of doctrines especially emphasized by the Scotists (eg freedom of the will, free co-operation with grace, meritoriousness of good works, the causality of the sacraments ex opere operato, the effect of absolution).理事会特伦特定义为教条了一系列的理论特别强调，由scotists （例如自由意志，自由的合作与运作的宽限期， meritoriousness良好的工程，因果关系圣礼前opere operato ，效果赦免） 。 In other points the canons were intentionally so framed that they do not affect Scotism (eg that the first man was constitutus in holiness and justice).在其他点炮人故意诬陷，使他们在不影响scotism （例如，第一名男子是constitutus在成圣和正义） 。 This was also done at the Vatican Council.这也是做在梵蒂冈会。 In the Thomistic-Molinistic controversy concerning the foreknowledge of God, predestination, the relation of grace to free will, the Scotists took little part.在thomistic - molinistic争议有关foreknowledge上帝， predestination ，相关的宽限期，以自由意志， scotists了很少的一部分。 They either supported one of the parties, or took up a middle position, rejecting both the predetermination of the Thomists and the scientia media of the Molinists.他们或者支持其中一方，或采取了一个中间立场，拒绝双方先前的thomists和科学媒体的molinists 。 God recognizes the free future acts in His essence, and provides a free decree of His will, which does not predetermine our free will, but only accompanies it.上帝承认自由的未来的行为，在他的本质，并提供一个自由的法令，他将不预先确定我们的自由意志，但只有伴随着它。
Jesuit philosophers and theologians adopted a series of the Scotist propositions.耶稣会的哲学家和神学家采取了一系列的scotist主张。 Later authorities reject in part many of these propositions and partly accept them, or at least do not directly oppose them.稍后当局拒绝在许多的一部分，这些主张和部分接受他们，或至少不直接反对他们。 This refers mostly to doctrines touching the deepest philosophical and theologieal questions, on which a completely certain judgment is difficult to obtain.这是指大部分的教义感动最深的哲学和theologieal问题，其中一个完全一定的判断是很难获得。 The following are generally rejected: formalism with the distinctio formalis, the spiritual matter of angels and of the soul, the view that the metaphysical essence of God consists in radical infinity, that the relationes trinitariae are not a perfection simpliciter simplex; that the Holy Ghost would be a distinct Person from the Son, even though He proceeded from the Father alone; that the angels can naturaliter know the secreta cordium (secret thoughts); that the soul of Christ is formally holy and impeccable, not by the very fact of the hypostatic union, but through another gratia creata (the visio beatifica); that the merits of Christ are not simpliciter et intrinsece, but only extrinsece and secundum quid, infinite; that there are indifferent acts in individuo; that the gratia sanctificans and the charitas habitualis are the same habitus; that circumcision is a sacrament in the strict sense; that transubstantiation makes the Body of Christ present per modum adductionis, etc. Another series of propositions was misunderstood even by Catholie theologians, and then in this false sense rightly rejected -- eg the doctrine of the univocatio entis, of the acceptation of the merits of Christ and man, etc. Of the propositions which have been accepted or at least favourably treated by a large number of scholars, we may mention: the Scotist view of the relation between essentia and existentia; that between ens and nihil the distance is not infinite but only as great as the reality that the particular ens possesses; that the accidens as such also possesses a separate existence (eg the accidentia of bread and wine in the Eucharist); that not only God, but also man can produce an esse simpliciter (eg man by generation); haecceitas as the principium individuationis.以下是一般驳回：形式主义与distinctio formalis ，精神的问题，天使和灵魂，认为形而上的本质，上帝存在于激进至无限远，认为relationes trinitariae是不是一个完善simpliciter简单;圣灵将是一个截然不同的人从儿子，即使他从父亲单;天使可以naturaliter知道secreta cordium （秘密的想法） ;的灵魂，基督是神圣的正式和无可挑剔的，而不是由非常事实上的hypostatic联盟，而是通过另一项特惠克雷娅察（ Visio的beatifica ） ;的优点，基督不是simpliciter等intrinsece ，但只有extrinsece和secundum块，有无限的;有漠不关心的行为，在individuo ;表示，特惠sanctificans和charitas habitualis是相同的习性;包皮环切术是一种圣礼在严格意义上;陷于变体说，使基督的身体，目前每modum adductionis等的另一系列的主张被误解，甚至由catholie神学家，然后在这虚假的安全感正确地拒绝了-例如学说的univocatio entis ，该验收的优点，基督和人为等主张，其中已被接受，或至少毫不逊色，处理了一大批学者，我们可能会提到： scotist鉴于关系之间的essentia和existentia ;之间的登记护士和nihil的距离不是无限的，但只作为伟大的作为现实，即登记护士，特别是拥有;表示， accidens这样还拥有一个单独的存在（如accidentia的面包和葡萄酒在圣体圣事） ;这不仅上帝，但男子也可以产生一esse simpliciter （如男子的一代） ; haecceitas作为原理individuationis 。 Also many propositions from psychology: eg that the powers of the soul are not merely accidents even natural and necessary of the soul, that they are not really distinct from the substance of the soul or from one another; that sense perception is not purely passive; that the intellect can recognize the singular directly, not merely indirectly; that the soul separated from the body forms its knowledge from things themselves, not merely from the ideas which it has acquired through life or which God infuses into it; that the soul is not united with the body for the purpose of acquiring knowledge through the senses but for the purpose of forming with it a new species, ie human nature; that the moral virtues are not necessarily inter se connexae, etc. Also many propositions concerning the doctrine of the angels: eg that the angels can be numerically distinct from one another, and therefore several angels can belong to the same species; that it is not merely through their activity or the application of their powers that angels can be in a given place; that they cannot go from place to place without having to traverse the intermediate space; that they do not acquire all natural knowledge from infused ideas only, but also through contemplation of things themselves; that their will must not necessarily will good or evil, according as it has once decided.也有许多主张，从心理学，如：认为权力的灵魂，不只是意外，甚至自然和必要的灵魂，他们是不是真的有别于实质的灵魂，或由一个另一个;感知不单纯是被动的;认为智力可以承认奇异直接，不只是间接;灵魂脱离身体的形式其知识，从自己的东西，而不是单从思想，它已获得通过的生命或上帝注入到它;灵魂，是不是美国与身体为目的的获取知识，透过感官，但为目的的形成与它一新种，即人性;表示，道德不一定是相互connexae等，也有许多主张，有关中庸思想天使：如认为天使可以数值有别于一另一，因此，几个天使，可以属于同一物种;表示，它不仅是通过他们的活动或应用他们的权力，天使可以在一个特定的地方;他们不能由地方而无需导线中间空间;它们不收购所有的自然知识，从思想，只有注入，而且还通过沉思的东西，自己;他们将必须不一定会好或邪恶，根据它一旦决定。 Furthermore, that Adam in the state of innocence could sin venially; that mortal sin, as an offence against God, is not intrinsically and simpliciter, but only extrinsically infinite; that Christ would have become man, even if Adam had not sinned; that the human nature of Christ had its proper created existence; that in Christ there were two filiationes, or sonships, a human and a Divine; that the sacraments have only moral causality; that, formally and in the last analysis, heavenly bappiness consists not in the visio Dei, but in the fruitio; that in hell venial sin is not punished with everlasting punishment; etc.此外，亚当在该国的无罪推定，可以单venially ;致命的单仲偕，作为对上帝的罪行，是不是在本质上和simpliciter ，但只有extrinsically无限;基督将成为男子，即使亚当没有罪;表示，人性的基督有其适当的创造的存在;表示，在基督里有两个filiationes ，或sonships ，人力和神;圣礼只有道义上的因果关系; ，正式在过去的分析，天理bappiness组成，而不是在Visio的dei ，但在fruitio ;表示，在地狱venial单是不是惩罚与永恒的处罚;等。
Scotism thus exercised also positively a wholesome influence on the development of philosophy and theology; its importance is not, as is often asserted, purely negative -- that is, it does not consist only in the fact that it exercised a wholesome criticism on St. Thomas and his school, and thus preserved science from stagnation. scotism因此，行使也积极一有益健康的影响，对发展哲学和神学，其重要性是不一样，往往宣称，纯粹是负面的-也就是说，它并不只在事实，即它行使有益健康的批评，在圣托马斯和他的学校，从而保存科学停滞。 A comparison of the Scotist teaching with that of St. Thomas has been often attempted -- for example, in the abovementioned work of Hauzeur at the end of the first volume; by Sarnano, "Conciliatio omnium controversiarum etc."比较研究scotist教学与圣托马斯一直往往企图-例如，在上述工作的h auzeur在去年底第一册;由萨尔纳诺， “ c onciliatioo mniumc ontroversiarum等” 。 (1589- ). （ 1589年-） 。 It may be admitted that in many cases the difference is rather in the terminology, or that a reconciliation is possible, if one emphasize certain parts of Scotus or St. Thomas, and pass over or tone down others.它可能会承认，在许多情况下，不同的是，而不是在术语，或者说，和解是有可能的，如果一强调的某些部分，司各脱或圣托马斯，并通过超过或淡化等。 However, in not a few points the contradiction still remains.然而，在没有数点的矛盾依然存在。 Generally speaking, Scotism found its supporters within the Franciscan Order; certainly, opposition to the Dominicans, ie to St. Thomas, made many members of the order disciples of Scotus.一般来说， scotism发现其支持者济秩序;当然，反对多米尼加，即圣托马斯，提出了许多成员的命令弟子的司各脱。 However, this does not mean that the foundation and development of Scotism is to be referred to the rivalry existing between the two orders.不过，这并不意味着基础和发展scotism是要被转介到争夺两国间存在的订单。 Even Aquinas found at first not a few opponents in his order, nor did all his fellow-Dominicans follow him in every particular (eg Durandus of St. Pourçain, d. 1332).甚至阿奎那发现在第一次没有几个对手，在他的命令，也没有他的所有同胞多米尼加追随他在每一个特定（例如durandus圣pourçain ，四1332 ） 。 The Scotist doctrines were also supported by many Minorites, of whose purity of purpose there can be no doubt, and of whom many have been included in the catalogue of saints and beati (eg Sts. Bernardine, John Capistran, Jacob of the March, Angelus of Chiavasso, etc.).该scotist理论也得到支持，许多minorites ，其纯度的目的，不能有任何怀疑，其中许多已被纳入目录的圣人和贝亚蒂（如STS的。 bernardine ，约翰皮斯特兰，雅各布的3月，钟对chiavasso等） 。 Furthermore, Scotism found not a few supporters among secular professors and in other religious orders (eg the Augustinians, Servites, etc.), especially in England, Ireland, and Spain.此外， scotism发现没有几个支持者之间的世俗的教授和在其他宗教的订单（如奥古斯丁会士， servites等） ，尤其是在英格兰，爱尔兰和西班牙。 On the other hand, not all the Minorites were Scotists.在另一方面，并非所有minorites被scotists 。 Many attached themselves to St. Bonaventure, or favoured an eclecticism from Scotus, St. Thomas, St. Bonaventure, etc. The Conventuals seem to have adhered most faithfully to Scotus, particularly at the University of Padua, where many highly esteemed teachers lectured.许多重视自己的圣文德，或赞成的折中主义从司各脱，圣托马斯，圣文德等conventuals似乎已坚持最忠实地司各脱，尤其是在帕多瓦大学，有许多高度评价教师的讲课。 Scotism found least support among the Capuchins, who preferred St. Bonaventure. scotism发现至少支持其中capuchins ，谁的首选圣文德。 Besides Scotus, the order had other highly-prized teachers, such as Alexander of Hales, Richard of Middleton, and especially St. Bonaventure (proclaimed Doctor ecclesia by Sixtus V in 1587), the ascetico-mystical trend of whose theology was more suited to wide circles in the order than the critical, dispassionate, and often abstruse teaching of the Subtle Doctor.此外司各脱，为了有其他的高度珍视的教师，如亚历山大黑尔斯，理查德的米德尔顿，尤其是圣文德（医生宣布教会由sixtus V的1587 ） ， ascetico -神秘的趋势，其神学是更适合广泛的各界人士在该命令大于临界，冷静，而且往往艰深的教学微妙的医生。 In Spain the martyred tertiary, Blessed Raymund Lullus (d. 1315), also had many friends.在西班牙烈士大专，有福raymund lullus （四1315 ） ，也有很多朋友。 It may be said that the whole order as such never had a uniform and special school of Scotists; the teachers, preachers, etc. were never compelled to espouse Scotism.可以说，整个秩序，这种从未有过一个统一的和特殊学校的scotists ;教师，传教士等，从来没有强迫拥护scotism 。 His disciples did indeed call Scotus "Doctor noster", "Doctor (vel Magister) Ordinis", but even among these many partly followed their own course (eg Petrus Aureolus), while Walter Burleigh (Burlaeus, d. about 1340) and still more so Occam were opponents of Scotus.他的弟子确实呼吁司各脱“医生noster ” ， “医生（或magister ） ordinis ” ，但即使在这些许多部分其次是他们自己的课程（例如彼aureolus ） ，而沃尔特伯利（ burlaeus ，四约1340年）还有更多的因此， occam被对手司各脱。 It is only at the end of the fifteenth or the beginning of the sixteenth century that a special Scotist School can be spoken of.这是只有在去年底的第十五或初十六世纪一个特别scotist学校可以发言。 The works of the master were then collected, brought out in many editions, commentated, etc. Since 1501 we also find numerous regulations of general chapters recommending or directly prescribing Scotism as the teaching of the order, although St. Bonaventure's writings were also to a great extent admitted (ef. Marian Fernández Garcia, "Lexicon scholasticum etc.", Quaracchi, 1910; "B. Joan. Duns Scoti: De rerum principio etc.", Quaracchi, 1910, preface article 3, nn. 46 sqq., where many regulations of 1501-1907 are given).工程硕士，然后收集，带出了在许多版本， commentated等自1501年我们还发现数量众多的规定，一般章节的推荐或直接开处方scotism作为教学的秩序，虽然圣文德的著作也有一个在很大程度上承认（ ef.玛丽安费尔南德斯加西亚， “词汇scholasticum等” ， quaracchi ， 1910年; “乙琼。邓scoti ：德rerum principio等” ， quaracchi ， 1910年，前言第3条，神经网络。 46 sqq 。 ，有许多规定， 1501年至1907年给出） 。 Scotism appears to have attained its greatest popularity at the beginning of the seventeenth century; during the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries we even find special Scotist chairs, eg at Paris, Rome, Coimbra, Salamanca, Alcalá, Padua, and Pavia. scotism似乎已经达到了最大的人气在年初十七世纪;期间，第十六和第十七世纪，我们甚至找到特别scotist椅，例如在巴黎，罗马，科英布拉，萨拉曼卡， alcalá ，帕多瓦，和帕维亚。 In the eighteenth century it had still an important following, but in the nineteenth it suffered a great decline.在十八世纪，它仍然是一个重要以下，但在第十九遭受了很大的下降。 One of the reasons for this was the repeated suppressions of the order in almost every country, while the recommendation of the teaching of St. Thomas by several popes could not be favourable to Scotism.原因之一，这是反复suppressions该命令在几乎每一个国家，而建议的教学圣托马斯几个教皇不能有利scotism 。 It has even been asserted that it is now merely tolerated; but this statement is a priori improbable in regard to a school of which not a single proposition has been censured, and to which so many highly venerated men (bishops, cardinals, popes, and saints) have belonged; and it is still less probable in view of the approval of the various general statutes (repeated so often down to the present day), in which Scotism is at least recommended.它甚至被断言，它现在只是容忍，但这项声明是一个先验琢磨方面的一所学校，其中没有一个单一的命题一直谴责，并如此众多的高度崇敬的男子（主教，枢机主教，教皇，圣人）属于;它仍不足可能在观批准的各种一般法规（重复，所以往往下降到目前的一天） ，其中scotism是至少的建议。 In their Decrees Leo XIII and Pius X have recommended not alone St. Thomas, but also Scholasticism in general, and this includes also the Scotist School.在他们的法令利奥十三和庇护x已提出建议，并不孤单，圣托马斯，但也士林在一般，这还包括了scotist学校。 In 1897 Leo XIII approved the "Constitutiones Generales Fratrum Minorum", of which article 245 prescribes for the members of the order: "In doctrinis philosophicis et theologicis antiqae scholae Franciscanae inhaerere studeant, quin tamen ceteros scholasticos negligant" (In philosophical and theological doctrine they shall take care to follow the ancient Franciscan School, without, however, neglecting the other Schoolmen.) On 11 April, 1904, in a letter to the Minister General, Father Dionysius Schuler, Pius X expressed his pleasure at the revival of studies in the order in connexion with the Franciscan schools of the Middle Ages, and on 19 June, 1908, in a letter to the abovementioned Father Marian, praised his book, "Mentis in Deum quotidiana elevatio duce B. Joanne Duns Scoto etc."在1897年利奥十三，批准了“ constitutiones generales fratrum minorum ” ，其中第245条订明为成员的命令： “在doctrinis philosophicis等theologicis antiqae scholae franciscanae inhaerere studeant ， quin但有ceteros scholasticos negligant ” （在哲学和神学教义，他们应采取照顾，按照古老的方济各学校，如果没有，然而，忽略了其他schoolmen ） 4月11日， 1904年在一封信中向部长一般，父亲狄奥尼修斯舒勒，碧岳x表示高兴复苏的研究，在为了在Connexion公司与方济各学校的中世纪，并就1908年6月19日，在一封信中，以上述的父亲玛丽安，称赞他的著作， “ mentis在deum quotidiana elevatio杜奇乙乔安妮邓斯科托等” 。 (Quaracehi, 1907. See Marian, op. cit., n. 66.) （ quaracehi ， 1907 。见玛丽安，前引书， 12月31日66 ） 。
II.二。 Scotists scotists
Most Scotists are both philosophers and theologians.最scotists都是哲学家和神学家。
Fourteenth Century第十四世纪
Pupils of Scotus: Francis Mayron (d. 1327), a very fruitful writer, who introduced the actus sorbonicus into the University of Paris, ie the uninterrupted disputation lasting the whole day.学生司各脱：弗朗西斯mayron （四1327 ） ，非常富有成果的作家，谁介绍actus sorbonicus进入巴黎大学，即不间断的争论持久一整天。 Petrus Aureolus (d. about 1322), Archbishop of Aix.彼aureolus （四约1322年） ，大主教的AIX 。 William de Rubione (about 1333).威廉德rubione （约1333 ） 。 Jerome de Atharia, Order of the Blessed Trinity (about 1323).杰罗姆德atharia ，秩序的神圣三一（约1323 ） 。 Antonius Andreae (d. about 1320) from Aragon, a true disciple of Scotus, who is said to have written several treatises attributed to the master.安当andreae （四约1320年）由阿拉贡，一个真正的门徒的司各脱，谁是说已写了一些论文归因于师父。 John de Bassolis (d. about 1347).约翰德bassolis （四约1347年） 。 Alvarus Pelagius (d. about 1350). alvarus伯拉纠（四约1350年） 。 Bishop Petrus de Aquila (d. 1371), called Scotellus from his faithful adherence to Scotus, of whose teaching he issued a compendium (new ed., Levanti, 1907-).主教彼德Aquila ） （四1371 ） ，所谓的scotellus从他的诚实，坚持司各脱，其教学，他发表了一份汇编（新版，莱文蒂， 1907年-） 。 Landulf Caraccioli (d. 1351), Archbishop of Amalfi. landulf caraccioli （四1351 ） ，大主教阿马尔。 Nicolaus Bonet (Bovet), who went to Peking and died as Bishop of Malta in 1360; John Bacon, Carmelite (d. 1346).尼可劳斯bonet （波维特） ，谁到北京和死亡的主教马耳他在1360年;约翰培根， carmelite （四1346 ） 。
Fifteenth Century第十五世纪
William Butler (d. 1410).威廉巴特勒（四1410 ） 。 Petrus de Candia (d. 1410 as Pope Alexander V).彼德candia （四1410年教皇亚历山大五） 。 Nicolaus de Orbellis (d. about 1465), who wrote a commentary on the Sentences (many editions) William Vorilong (Vorlion etc., d. 1464), a celebrated theologian, who wrote a frequently quoted "Comm. super Sentent.", but who also followed St. Bonaventure.尼可劳斯德orbellis （四约1465年） ，谁写的一篇评论就判刑（许多版本）威廉vorilong （ vorlion等四1464年） ，著名的神学家，谁写了经常引述“通讯超级sentent 。 ” ，但谁也跟着圣文德。 Angelus Serpetri, General of the Order (d. 1454).钟serpetri ，一般该命令（四1454 ） 。 William Gorris (about 1480), not a Franciscan, who composed the "Scotus pauperum".威廉gorris （约1480 ） ，而不是济，谁组成的“司各脱pauperum ” 。 Blessed Angelus of Chivasso (d. 1495), whose "Summa" (called Angelica) is extant in about thirty editions and contains a great deal of Scotist doctrine; it was publicly burned by Luther with the "Corpus juris canonici" in 1520.有福钟的chivasso （四1495 ） ，其“总结” （所谓的当归）是现存的约在30版，并包含了大量的scotist学说，这是公开烧毁路德与“大全canonici ”在1520年。 Antonius Sirretus (Sirectus, d. about 1490), famous for his "Formalitates", to whieb several later Scotists wrote commentaries.安当sirretus （ sirectus ，四约1490年） ，著名的为他的“ formalitates ” ， whieb几个稍后scotists写评论。 Tartaretus (about 1495), rector of the University of Paris, and not a Franciscan; Elector Frederick III of Saxony had his philosophical commentaries introduced into the University of Wittenberg at his expense. tartaretus （约1495 ） ，大学校长巴黎，而不是一个济;选民冯检三，萨克森州，他的哲学的评论，引入大学的维滕贝格在他牺牲。 Thomas Pencket, Augustinian (d. 1487), knew Scotus almost by heart, and edited his works.托马斯pencket ，奥古斯丁（四1487 ） ，知道司各脱几乎由心，和编辑他的作品。 Francis Sampson, General of the Order (d. 1491), was called by Pope Sixtus IV, before whom he held a disputation, the most learned of all.弗朗西斯桑普森，一般该命令（四1491年） ，被称为由西斯四之前，他举行了争议，最了解所有。 Francis de Rovere (d. 1484 as Sixtus IV), who defended in a disputation before Pius II and also in his writings the doctrine that the blood shed by Christ on the Cross was released from the hypostatic union.弗朗西斯德rovere （四1484年作为sixtus四） ，谁辩护，在一个争议之前碧岳二和也在他的著作学说认为，血液中棚由基督在十字架上被释放，从hypostatic联盟。 Stephen Brulefer (d. about 1499), renowned professor in Paris and later a Franciscan, who wrote "Comm. in Bonavent. et Scotum" (often edited).斯蒂芬brulefer （四约1499年） ，知名的教授，在巴黎和后来济，谁写“通讯在博纳旺。等scotum ” （通常编辑） 。
Sixteenth Century第十六世纪
This period is very rich in names.这一时期是非常丰富的名称。 The following may be mentioned: Paul Scriptoris (d. 1505), professor at the University of Tübingen, who had as students all the other professors and many other members of religious orders.以下不妨提到：保罗scriptoris （四1505 ） ，大学教授蒂宾根大学，谁曾作为学生的所有其他教授和许多其他成员的宗教命令。 Nicholas de Nüsse (d. 1509).尼古拉斯德nüsse （四1509 ） 。 Mauritius a Portu (d. 1513 as Archbishop of Tuam, Ireland), who wrote a commentary on many works of Scotus.毛里求斯一portu （四1513大主教tuam ，爱尔兰） ，谁写的一篇评论对许多工程司各脱。 Francis Lichetus, General of the Order (d. 1520).弗朗西斯lichetus ，一般该命令（四1520 ） 。 Anthony Trombetta, Archbishop of Athens (d. 1518), who wrote and edited able Scotist works.张炳良trombetta ，大主教雅典（四1518 ） ，谁写和编辑能够scotist工程。 Philip Varagius (about 1510).弘varagius （约1510 ） 。 Johannes de Monte (about 1510).约翰内斯德的Monte （约1510 ） 。 Gometius of Lisbon (d. 1513), re-edited the often issued fourteenth-century "Summa Astesana". gometius在里斯本（ 1513年四） ，重新编辑，往往发出第十四世纪的“总结astesana ” 。 Frizzoli (d. 1520).弗里佐利（四1520 ） 。 James Almainus (about 1520), Parisian magister and not a Franciscan, favoured Gallicanism.詹姆斯almainus （约1520 ） ，巴黎magister而不是一个济，赞成gallicanism 。 Antonius de Fantes, physician, composed in 1530 a Scotus lexicon.安东尼德凡特斯，医师组成，在1530年1司各脱的词汇。 Jerome Cadius (d. 1529).杰罗姆cadius （四1529 ） 。 Le Bret (about 1527), wrote "Parvus Scotus".勒布雷（约1527 ） ，写道： “ parvus司各脱” 。 Paduanus Barletta (about 1545). paduanus barletta （约1545 ） 。 James Bargius (about 1560).詹姆斯bargius （约1560 ） 。 Johannes Dovetus, who wrote in 1579 "Monotesseron formalitatum Scoti, Sieretti, Trombettae et Bruliferi".约翰内斯dovetus ，谁写在1579年“ monotesseron formalitatum scoti ， sieretti ， trombettae等bruliferi ” 。 Joseph Angles, bishop and celebrated moralist (d. 1587), wrote the often edited "Flores theol.".约瑟夫的角度，主教和庆祝道德（四1587 ） ，写往往编辑的“弗洛雷斯theol ” 。 Damian Giner issued the "Opus Oxoniense Scoti" in a more convenient form (1598).达米安giner发出“作品oxoniense scoti ”在一个更方便的形式（ 1598 ） 。 Cardinal Sarnanus (d. 1595), a highly distinguished scholar, wrote a commentary on some philosophical works of Scotus, and edited the works of many Scotists.枢机主教sarnanus （四1595年） ，一个高度尊敬的学者，写了一篇评论对一些哲学著作的司各脱，和编辑的作品，许多scotists 。 Salvator Bartolucci (about 1586), also a zealous editor.为Salvator巴尔托卢奇（约1586 ） ，也是一个热心的编辑器。 Felix Perettus (d. 1590 as Sixtus V).费利克斯perettus （四1590年作为sixtus五） 。
Seventeenth Century十七世纪
Of very many names we may mention: Gothutius (about 1605).对很多的名字，我们可能提： gothutius （约1605 ） 。 Guido Bartholucci (about 1610).圭多bartholucci （约1610 ） 。 Petrus Bonaventura (about 1607).彼波纳文图拉（约1607 ） 。 Ruitz (about 1613) Smissing (d. 1626). ruitz （约1613 ） smissing （四1626 ） 。 Philip Faber (d. 1630).弘的Faber （四1630 ） 。 Albergonius, bishop (d. 1636). albergonius ，主教（四1636 ） 。 Centini, bishop (d. 1640). centini ，主教（四1640 ） 。 Matthaus de Sousa (about 1629).马特乌斯德索萨（约1629 ） 。 Merinero, bishop (about 1663).梅里内罗，主教（约1663 ） 。 Francis Felix (about 1642).弗朗西斯费利克斯（约1642 ） 。 Vulpes (d. 1647) wrote "Summa" and "Commen. theologiae Scoti" in twelve folio volumes. vulpes （四1647 ）写道： “总结”和“常见。 theologiae scoti ”在12对开册。 Blondus, bishop (d. 1644) - Gavatius, archbishop (d. 1658). blondus ，主教（四1644 ） -g avatius，大主教（四1 658） 。 Wadding (d. 1657), a well-known annalist, edited with other Irishmen in the College of S. Isidore at Rome the complete works of Scotus (12 vols., Lyons, 1639), with the commentaries of Pitigianus of Arezzo (d. 1616), Poncius (d. 1660), Mauritius a Portu (Mac Caughwell), Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of Ireland (d. 1626), and Anthony Illckey (d. 1641); reprinted Paris, 1891-95.填料（四1657 ） ，一家著名的编年史者，编辑与其他irishmen在学院第伊西多尔在罗马完成的作品，司各脱（ 12卷，里昂， 1639年） ，与评论pitigianus的阿雷佐（四。 1616年） ， poncius （四1660年） ，毛里求斯一portu （陆委会caughwell ） ，大主教阿玛和灵长类爱尔兰（四1626 ） ，和安东尼illckey （四1641年） ;重印巴黎， 1891年至1895年。 Bricemo, named on account of his keenness of intellect the Second Scotus, Bishop of Venezuela (d. 1667). bricemo ，命名就交代他的敏锐性智力第二司各脱，主教委内瑞拉（四1667 ） 。 Belluti (d. 1676), edited with Mastrius a highly prized "Philosophia ad mentem Scoti" (many editions). belluti （四1676年） ，编辑与mastrius一个非常珍贵的“ philosophia广告mentem scoti ” （许多版本） 。 Mastrius himself (d. 1673) wrote a celebrated "Disputationes theol." mastrius自己（四1673年）写下了著名的“ disputationes theol ” 。 (many editions) and "Theologia ad mentem Scoti" (1671, etc.). （许多版本）和“ theologia广告mentem scoti ” （ 1671等） 。 Ferchius (d. 1666) wrote "Vita et apologia Scoti, etc." ferchius （四1666 ）写道： “简历等纵容scoti等” Bruodinus (d. 1664). bruodinus （四1664 ） 。 Herinckx (d. 1678), Bishop of Ypres. herinckx （四1678 ） ，主教伊普尔。 Stümel (d. 1681 at Fulda). stümel （四1681年在富尔达） 。 Boivin, highly esteemed philosopher and theologian (several editions of works, 1678, etc.) Sannig (about 1690).博伊文，高度评价哲学家和神学家（几个版本的工程， 1678等） sannig （约1690 ） 。 Lambrecht (about 1696), named the Viennese Scotus. lambrecht （约1696 ） ，命名为维也纳司各脱。 Bishop Gennari (d. 1684).主教gennari （四1684 ） 。 Cardinal Brar `catius (d. 1693), held in high favour by several popes.枢机主教brar ` catius （四1693年） ，举行了高赞成由几个教皇。 Hernandez (d. 1695).-Macedo (d. 1681), a Portuguese, professor at Padua is said to have composed over one hundred writings and was renowned for his public disputations.埃尔南德斯（四1695 ） .-马塞（四1681 ） ，葡萄牙语，教授在帕多瓦是说已组成超过100的著作和著名的是他的公共disputations 。
Eighteenth Century十八世纪
Frassen (d. 1711) was for thirty years a celebrated professor at the Sorbonne and wrote "Scotus academicus seu universa theo Scoti" (many editions, 1672, etc.; last ed., Rome 1900- ), a very profound and lucid work. frassen （四1711年）为三十年著名的教授在索邦大学，并写道： “司各脱academicus请输入您的通用西奥scoti ” （许多版本， 1672等;最后，教育署，罗马1900年-） ，一个很深刻的和清晰的工作。 Du randus (d. 1720) wrote the great "Clypeus scotisticus (many editions). Dupasquier, "Summa phil." an "Summa theol." (about 1720; many editions). Hieronymus a Montefortino "Duns Scoti Summ.杜randus （四1720年）写了伟大的“ clypeus scotisticus （许多版本） 。杜奎斯帕尔， ”总结菲尔。 “一”总结theol 。 “ （约1720年;许多版本） 。海欧纳莫斯一montefortino ”邓scoti summ 。 theol. theol 。 ex universis opp.当然universis opp 。 eius . eius 。 . 。 . 。 juxta ordiner Summæ Angelici Doctoris" (6 vols., 1728-34; new ed., Rome, 1900-03), a very able work. Panger (d 1732 at Augsburg), Scotist moralist. Kikh (d. 1769 at Munich), Scotist dogmatic theologian. Pérez López (d. 1724). Krisper (d. 1749). Hermann, Abbot of St. Trudbert, "Theologia sec. juxta ordiner summæ angelici doctoris “ （ 6卷， 1728年至1734年;新的版，罗马， 1900年至1903年） ，一个非常能干的工作。 panger （四1732年在奥格斯堡） ， scotist道德。 kikh （四1769年在慕尼黑） ， scotist教条式的神学家。佩雷斯洛佩斯（四1724 ） 。 krisper （四1749 ） 。赫尔曼，住持圣trudbert ， “ theologia秒。 Scoti principia" (1720). Melgaco (1747). Bishop Sarmentero (d. 1775). scoti原理“ （ 1720 ） 。梅尔加索（ 1747 ） 。主教sarmentero （四1775 ） 。
Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 19世纪和20世纪
In the nineteenth century, although Scotism was retained in the schools of the Franciscan Order in accordance with the statutes, we meet but few tractates secundum mentem Scoti, in any case no celebrated ones.在十九世纪，虽然scotism被保留在学校的方济秩序，按照章程，我们满足，但数tractates secundum mentem scoti ，在任何情况下，没有庆祝。 The twentieth century appears to promise better.二十世纪的承诺，似乎更好。 Father Fernández, a Spaniards, is a zealous Scotist.父亲费尔南德斯，西班牙，是一个热心的scotist 。 Beside the abovementioned writings, he has written a large "Scotus Lexicon", and is at present (1911) issuing new edition of Scotus's "Comment. in Sentent.'旁边的上述著作，他写了一大“司各脱的词汇” ，是目前（ 1911年）发行的新版本司各脱的“发表评论。在sentent 。 Another zealous worker is Father Deodat-Marie de Basley; his fortnightly journal, "La bonne parole" (now entitled "Revue Duns Scot."), contains much Scotistica. He is also engaged on the "Capitali opera B. Joan.另一个热心的工人是父亲德奥达-玛丽德basley ;他每两周日报“香格里拉钟头的假释” （现名为“杂志邓逍遥法外。 ” ） ，包含了很多scotistica ，他还参与了对“ capitali歌剧乙琼。 Duns Scoti" (Le Havre, 1908) of which the "Praeparatio philosophica" and "Synthesis theologica credendorum" have already appeared. Father Parthenius Minges has explained and defended much of the Scotist doctrine in his "Compend.邓scoti “ （勒阿弗尔， 1908年） ，其中” praeparatio philosophica “和”合成theologica credendorum “已经出现。父亲parthenius minges解释和辩护，大部分的scotist学说在他的” compend 。 theolog. theolog 。 dogmat. dogmat 。 specialis et generalis" (Munich, 1901-02), and in a number of other works.特别等generalis “ （慕尼黑， 1901年至1902年） ，以及在其他一些工程。
Publication information Written by Parthenius Minges.出版的资料，撰写parthenius minges 。 Transcribed by Kevin Cawley.转录由Kevin cawley 。 The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XIII.天主教百科全书，货量十三。 Published 1912. 1912年出版。 New York: Robert Appleton Company.纽约：罗伯特阿普尔顿公司。 Nihil Obstat, February 1, 1912. nihil obstat ， 1912年2月1日。 Remy Lafort, DD, Censor.的Remy lafort ，房屋署副署长，检查员。 Imprimatur. imprimatur 。 +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York +约翰farley枢机主教，大主教，纽约
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