Scholasticism is a form of Christian philosophy and theology developed by scholars who came to be called schoolmen.士林是一种形式的基督教哲学和神学发展的学者谁来到被称为schoolmen 。 It flourished during the medieval period of European history.它蓬勃发展，在中世纪时期，欧洲的历史。 The heart of scholasticism insisted upon a system that was clear and definitional in tone.心脏士林坚持一个制度，这是明确的和定义在语调。 The system attempted to synthesize ideas expressed in classical Roman and Greek writings and in Christian Scripture, the writings of the patristic fathers, and other Christian writings preceding the medieval period.系统试图合成表达的思想在古典罗马和希腊的著作和在基督教圣经的著作教父的父亲，和其他基督教的著作之前的中世纪时期。 Aristotle's views helped give scholasticism a systematic structure, but Platonism also played a large part in the enterprise.亚里士多德的意见，帮助，让士林一个有系统的结构，但柏拉图也发挥了很大一部分在企业中。
Some persons consider scholasticism to have been a boring, dry system emphasizing sheer memorization.有些人考虑到士林一直沉闷，干燥系统，强调纯粹的记忆。 However, in many respects it was dynamic, truly seeking to settle questions concerning reality.然而，在许多方面它是动态的，真正寻求解决问题的现实。 The Disputed Questions of Thomas Aquinas, rather than his Summa, point out the vibrancy of the system.有争议的问题，托马斯阿奎那，而不是他的总结，指出，活力充沛的制度。 The philosophical aspects of scholasticism were not dicated strictly by a set of theological dogmas but rather worked with both faith and reason in an attempt to understand reality from the viewpoint of a human being.哲学方面的士林没有dicated严格按照一套神学的教条，而是工作与信仰与理性在一个试图了解从现实的角度来看一个人。
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Anselm of Canterbury is the first great developer of scholasticism.安瑟伦的坎特伯雷是第一个伟大的开发商士林。 His Monologion investigates problems surrounding God from a reasonable and yet prayerful viewpoint.他monologion调查的问题，周围的上帝，从一个合理的，但虔诚的观点。 He developed the famous principle "faith seeking to know."他发展了著名的原则“的信念，寻求知道” 。
Peter Abelard sought to show various ways in which contradictory texts could be synthesized.彼得阿贝拉尔要求，以显示通过各种方式使矛盾的文本可以合成。 He became involved in the disputed question concerning whether "universals" were really things or merely names.他成为涉及在有争议的问题，有关是否“共性”的东西，真的，抑或只是名称。
Gilbert de la Porree continued to develop various views in a scholastic manner.梁锦濠德香格里拉porree继续发展各方面的意见，在学术上的方式。 Hugh of St. Victor sought to give scholasticism more of a mystical flare; he was criticized by many because of his lack of reasonableness.休圣维克多要求给予士林更多的是神秘的耀斑;他的批评很多，因为他缺乏合理性。 He was deeply indebted to Augustine for his views.他深深感激奥古斯丁为他的意见。 Bernard of Clairvaux developed a psychological view in scholasticism which, although wedded to a form of mysticism, sought to be more reasonable than mystical.伯纳德的克莱尔沃制定了心理的看法，在士林，虽然wedded一种形式的神秘主义，寻求较为合理，较神秘。
Peter Lombard developed a series of "sentences" that were to be taught to seminarians studying for the priesthood in the twelfth century.彼得隆巴德制定了一系列“服刑”被教导修道学习神职人员在12世纪。 These scholastic sentences were usually simple and also capable of being memorized by the students.这些学术服刑，通常是简单的，也是能够被记忆所的学生。 It is this form of scholasticism that has caused many persons to discredit it as an uncreative experience.这是这种形式的士林已造成许多人抹黑，它作为一个uncreative经验。
Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus) was not much of an improvement over Peter Lombard, but he deeply influenced Thomas Aquinas, who was the apogee of scholastic thought.何俊仁的伟大（阿尔伯图斯思）是没有多大的改善彼得隆巴德，但他深深的影响，托马斯阿奎那，谁是远地点在学术思想。 Thomism has many forms, but they are all trying to interpret the system of thought developed by Thomas Aquinas. thomism有很多形式，但他们都试图解释系统的思路开发的托马斯阿奎那。 His great effort was to combine what could be called non - Christian philosophy with both Christian philosophy and theology.他的伟大的努力结合起来，有什么可称为非-基督教哲学与基督教哲学和神学。 Christian Scripture could be combined with elements of ideas discovered by natural thought unaided by the grace of Scripture.基督教圣经，可结合分子的思想，发现自然的思想，由外援的恩典经文。 Thomas Aquinas was heavily influenced by not only Aristotelianism but also Platonism.托马斯阿奎那是有重大影响，不仅aristotelianism ，但也柏拉图。 He also attempted to combine the thought of Averroes into his system.他还企图结合起来的思想， averroes到他的系统。 Some of his contemporaries considered some of his ideas to be heretical.他的一些同时代的考虑他的一些想法是异端邪说。 Cardinal Tempier of Paris was especially disturbed by his view concerning the resurrection of the body as it was presented in his Disputed Questions.枢机主教tempier巴黎尤其是不安，他认为关于复活的身体据介绍，在他的有争议的问题。
Bonaventure was another great schoolman, but his style of presentation is turgid and pales somewhat in relation to the presentations of Aquinas.文德是另一个伟大的斯库尔曼，但他的作风，简报是turgid和有点黯然失色，在有关的发言阿奎那。 Bonaventure was quite polemical in his attacks against Aristotelianism, which undermined his attempt to be reasonable.文德是相当polemical在他的攻击aristotelianism ，这破坏了他的企图是合理的。
In the fourteenth century Giles of Rome presented some brilliance within the scholastic tradition, but he was not very consequential in relation to Aquinas.在14世纪的贾尔斯罗马的一些华晨内部的学术传统，但他不是很相应在有关阿奎那。 The great scholastic thinker of the fourteenth century was John Duns Scotus.伟大的思想家，在学术上的14世纪是约翰邓司各脱。 He had an extremely subtle understanding of the use of words.他曾一个极其微妙的认识，使用的话。 He was chiefly interested in the problem of epistemology.他主要感兴趣的问题，认识论。 His school of thought, Scotism, influenced many people in later ages, including Martin Heidegger and Ludwig Wittgenstein.他的学校的思想， scotism的影响，很多人在后世，包括海德格尔和维特根斯坦。 William of Ockham rounds out the glorious age of scholasticism.威廉ockham轮出的光辉时代士林。 He was called a nominalist because he wondered if exterior reality to the human mind was given a series of words which remained primarily in the mind.他被称为nominalist ，因为他不知道，如果外部的现实，以人的头脑获得了一系列的话，这仍然主要是在铭记。 For William of Ockham it was unclear that the human mind could actually know exterior reality.为威廉ockham现在还不清楚，该人的头脑其实可以知道，外部的现实。
Scholasticism went into desuetude in the fifteenth century, but it was revived in the sixteenth century.士林走进desuetude在十五世纪，但它复苏，在十六世纪。 The twentieth century has experienced a renewed attempt to make the Thomistic form of scholasticism credible as a system of thought.在二十世纪经历了续约，企图使该thomistic形式的士林可信作为一个系统的思路。 This movement within Roman Catholic circles has been partially successful.这项运动在罗马天主教界已取得部分成功。
TJ
German德国的TJ
(Elwell Evangelical Dictionary)
（ elwell福音事工促进会，字典）
Bibliography
参考书目
J Pieper,
Scholasticism; E Gilson, The Christian Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas and The
Unity of Philosophical Experience. j
•皮佩尔，士林，电子商务吉尔松，基督教哲学多瑪斯和团结的哲学经验。
The term scholasticism (from the Latin schola, "school") refers properly both to the doctrine and method of teaching in the medieval European schools and to their successive revivals to the present day.任期士林（从拉丁美洲schola ， “学校” ）是指既要妥善理论和教学方法，在中世纪欧洲的学校和他们相继复苏，以目前天。 As a method, scholasticism involves (1) the close, detailed reading (lectio) of a particular book recognized as a great or authoritative work of human or divine origin - for example, Aristotle in logic, Euclid in geometry, Cicero in rhetoric, Avicenna and Galen in medicine, the Bible in theology - and (2) the open discussion (disputatio) in strict logical form of a relevant question (quaestio) arising from the text.作为一种方法，士林涉及（ 1 ）关闭，详细阅读（ lectio ）一书，特别是公认的作为一个伟大的或权威性的工作人或神的原产地-例如，亚里士多德在逻辑上，在欧几里得几何，西塞罗在修辞，阿维森纳和盖伦在医学上，圣经在神学-和（ 2 ）公开讨论（ d isputatio）在严格的逻辑形式有关问题（ q uaestio）所产生的案文。 As a doctrine, scholasticism refers to the kind of philosophy, theology, medicine, and law (canon and civil) taught by the faculties responsible for these disciplines.作为一个学说，士林是指以种哲学，神学，医学，和法律（佳能和民间）教授，由院系负责这些学科。 These four faculties constituted the medieval universities that began to be organized in the 12th century, beginning in Bologna, Paris, and Oxford.这四个学系，构成了中世纪大学开始，将组织在12世纪，开始在博洛尼亚，巴黎和牛津大学。
The most important faculties, however, were arts (philosophy) and theology, and the term scholasticism is usually understood in the context of those disciplines.最重要的学院，但是，艺术（哲学）和神学，以及长远的士林通常理解的语境中的那些学科。
The basic philosophy of the faculty of arts was Aristotelian because the greatest and most authoritative books in philosophy were believed to be Aristotle's.基本哲学学院艺术亚里士多德，因为最大的和最权威的书籍在哲学被认为是亚里士多德的。 Aristotle, however, was interpreted differently by different professors depending on the commentaries used, notably those of "the Commentator," Averroes; the Christian Neoplatonist, Saint Augustine; or the pagan Neoplatonist, Avicenna.亚里士多德，然而，不同的解释，不同的教授，视乎有关的评论，使用，特别是那些“评论员” ， averroes ;基督教neoplatonist ，圣奥古斯丁;或异教的neoplatonist ，阿维森纳。
Similarly in theology, the Bible was variously interpreted depending on the kind of philosophy used to understand the Christian faith systematically.同样，在神学，圣经是不同的解释，根据对种哲学用来了解基督教信仰系统。 Among the numerous ways of systematizing the faith, certain schools of theology stand out as particularly notable and viable throughout the Middle Ages and to the present day.其中很多方法的系统化的信仰，某些学校的神学站出来作为特别显着的和可行的整个中世纪和到今天。 The most important of these scholastic theologies were Thomism, developed from the teaching of Saint Thomas Aquinas; Augustinism, developed from Saint Augustine; Scotism, from John Duns Scotus; Nominalism, from William of Occam; and Suarazianism, formulated by Francisco Suarez, a 16th century Jesuit who tried to synthesize various schools.其中最重要的学术theologies被thomism ，发达国家从教学的圣托马斯阿奎那; augustinism ，发达国家从圣奥古斯丁; scotism ，由约翰邓司各脱;唯，由威廉occam ; suarazianism ，制定旧金山苏亚雷斯，第十六世纪耶稣会谁试图综合各学校。 The basic principle underlying all forms of scholasticism was rational consistency with the Christian faith as taught in the Bible and as understood by the living Church of Rome through the writings of the ancient Greek and Latin Fathers, the rulings of the ecumenical councils, the liturgy, and the continuing teaching and practice of the church.基本原则的一切形式的士林哲学是理性的一致性与基督教信仰作为教授在圣经中和所理解的生活罗马教会通过的著作，古希腊和拉丁美洲的父亲，裁决合一议会，礼仪，和持续的教学与实践教会。
Scholasticism is generally divided into three periods: medieval scholasticism, extending from Boethius (5th - 6th century) to the 16th century, with its Golden Age in the 13th century; "second scholasticism," beginning in the 16th century with Thomas de Vio Cajetan, Conrad Koellin, Peter Crokert, Francesco de Vittoria, and Francisco Suarez; and neoscholasticism, beginning in the early 19th century, given impetus by the encyclical Aeterni Patris (1879) of Pope Leo XIII, and continuing at least until the Second Vatican Council (1962 - 65).士林一般分为三个时期：中世纪士林，扩大从波爱修斯（第五-第六世纪） 1 6世纪，与它的黄金时代，在十三世纪; “第二院” ，开始在1 6世纪与托马斯德V IO接c ajetan，林钜成koellin ，彼得crokert ，弗朗切斯科德vittoria ，和Francisco苏亚雷斯; neoscholasticism ，开始于19世纪初，推动了通谕aeterni patris （ 1879 ）教宗利奥十三，继续，至少到梵蒂冈第二次会议（ 1962年-6 5） 。
In a stricter sense, scholasticism began with the Sentences (c. 1150) of Peter Lombard, the Decretum (c. 1150) of Gratian, and the flood of new Latin translations of classical philosophers, including all of Aristotle, made from Greek and Arabic throughout the second half of the 12th century.在严格的意义上讲，士林开始与刑罚（长1150 ）彼得隆巴德， decretum （长1150 ） gratian ，和泛滥的新拉丁美洲翻译古典哲学家，包括所有的亚里士多德，从希腊文和阿拉伯文整个下半年的12世纪。 Assimilation of this new learning took place in the universities of the 13th century through the genius of the Dominicans Saint Albertus Magnus and his great pupil Thomas Aquinas, whose Summa Theologiae is widely regarded as the pinnacle of scholastic theology; and of the Franciscans Saint Bonaventure, John Duns Scotus, and William of Occam (early 14th century), who challenged the Dominican school.同化这一新的学习发生在高校的13世纪通过的天才多米尼加圣阿尔伯图斯马格努斯和他的伟大的学生托马斯阿奎那，其总结theologiae被广泛视为顶峰，在学术上的神学;的圣方济各文德，约翰邓司各脱，威廉occam （早期14世纪） ，谁挑战多米尼加学校。
With the multiplication of universities between the 14th and 16th centuries came a decline in the standard of teaching and the caliber of teachers, and a "logicism" or formalism of thought that aroused the animosity of a new humanism that arose mainly outside university circles.与乘法大学之间的第十四和第十六数百年来的跌幅在教学水平和高素质的教师，和“逻辑”或形式主义认为引起的敌意一个新的人文精神出现，主要是大学以外的各界人士。 The term scholasticism then began to be used in a derogatory sense.任期士林，然后开始用在一个带有贬义色彩的意识。
The rise of Modernism in the Roman Catholic church after 1900, however, resulted in a multiplicity of ecclesiastical condemnations, a legislated Thomism, and a failure to realize the hopes of Leo XIII.崛起的现代主义在罗马天主教会后， 1900年，然而，导致在一个多元化的教会谴责，一个法定thomism ，并未能实现的希望利奥十三。 Despite this and two world wars, much fruitful work was accomplished by outstanding scholars, numerous periodicals, and editors of historical texts, including the critical edition of the works of Aquinas (the Leonine Edition).尽管这和两次世界大战，许多卓有成效的工作是通过优秀的学者，众多的期刊，和编辑的历史文本，包括关键版的工程阿奎那（ leonine版） 。 Among the great number of modern scholars who called themselves Thomists (but not neo - Thomists or neoscholastics) were Jacques Maritain, Etienne Gilson, Martin Grabmann, and Yves Congar.其中大量的现代学者谁的人称自己是thomists （但不包括新保守主义-t homists或n eoscholastics） ，马里旦，艾蒂安吉尔松，李柱铭格拉布曼，和伊夫•琼加尔。
For reasons still not fully understood, a decided reaction against Aquinas and neoscholasticism occurred in the 1960s.原因还不完全明白，一个决定的反应对阿奎那和neoscholasticism发生在20世纪60年代。 Some have erroneously associated this with the Second Vatican Council, which turned people's minds toward social rather than doctrinal issues.有些人误相关，这与梵蒂冈第二次会议，把人们的思想，走向社会，而不是理论的问题。 Aquinas was, however, the only scholastic doctor mentioned by name in all the conciliar documents.阿奎那是，不过，只有在学术上的医生所提到的名称在所有conciliar文件。 The real reasons for the decline of neoscholasticism must be sought in the wider sociological and psychological concerns of contemporary society.的真正原因，下降neoscholasticism必须寻求在更广泛的社会和心理的关注，当代社会。
James A Weisheipl詹姆斯一weisheipl
Bibliography
参考书目
FP Cassidy,
Molders of the Medieval Mind (1944); Y Congar, A History of Theology (1968); E
Gilson, The Christian Philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas (1957) and History of
Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages (1955); RM McInerny, ed., New Themes in
Christian Philosophy (1968); J Pieper, Scholasticism: Personalities and Problems
of Medieval Philosophy (1960); B Smalley, The Becket Conflict and the Schools: A
Study of Intellectuals in Politics (1973); JR Weinberg, A Short History of
Medieval Philosophy (1964).计划生育卡西迪公司，模塑的中世纪记（ 1944年） ; y琼加尔，历史，神学（ 1968年）
，电子商务吉尔松，基督教哲学的圣托马斯阿奎那（ 1957年）和历史的基督教哲学在中世纪（ 1955年） ;室mcinerny ，教育署，新的主题，在基督教哲学（
1968年） ; j •皮佩尔，士林：性格和问题，中世纪哲学（ 1960条） ， b Smalley ） ，贝克特的冲突和学校：研究知识分子在政治上（
1973年） ;方面JR温柏格，历史较短，中世纪哲学（ 1964年） 。
Scholasticism is a term used to designate both a method and a system.士林是一个长远的用于指定既是一种方法和制度。 It is applied to theology as well as to philosophy.将它应用到神学以及哲学。 Scholastic theology is distinguished from Patristic theology on the one hand, and from positive theology on the other.在学术上是杰出的神学从教父神学上，一方面，从积极的神学对其他。 The schoolmen themselves distinguished between theologia speculativa sive scholastica and theologia positiva.该schoolmen自己区分theologia speculativa sive scholastica和theologia positiva 。 Applied to philosophy, the word "Scholastic" is often used also, to designate a chronological division intervening between the end of the Patristic era in the fifth century and the beginning of the modern era, about 1450.适用于哲学，改为“学校”是常用的同时，指定一个顺序分工干预之间的年底教父的时代，在第五世纪开始，现代的时代，约1450年。 It will, therefore, make for clearness and order if we consider:它将，因此，作出清晰和秩序，如果我们考虑到：
I. The origin of the word "Scholastic";一，词源“学术” ;
II.二。 The history of the period called Scholastic in the history of philosophy;历史时期的所谓学术，在哲学史上的;
III.三。 The Scholastic method in philosophy, with incidental reference to the Scholastic method in theology; and学术方法在哲学，附带参考的学术方法在神学;
IV.四。 The contents of the Scholastic system.内容的学术体系。
The revival of Scholasticism in recent times has been already treated under the head NEO-SCHOLASTICISM.复兴士林在最近的时代已经治疗下，头部新院。
I. ORIGIN OF THE NAME "SCHOLASTIC"一，原产地命名为“学业”
There are in Greek literature a few instances of the use of the word scholastikos to designate a professional philosopher.有在希腊文学的几个实例一词的使用scholastikos指定一个专业的哲学家。 Historically, however, the word, as now used, is to be traced, not to Greek usage, but to early Christian institutions.从历史上看，不过，一句话，像现在使用的，是要追查，而不是希腊的使用，但早期基督教机构。 In the Christian schools, especially after the beginning of the sixth century, it was customary to call the head of the school magister scholae, capiscola, or scholasticus.在基督教的学校，尤其是开始后六世纪，这是习惯，呼吁主管学校magister scholae ， capiscola ，或scholasticus 。 As time went on, the last of these appellations was used exclusively.随着时间的推移，最近的这些称谓是专门用于。 The curriculum of those schools included dialectic among the seven liberal arts, which was at that time the only branch of philosophy studied systematically.课程包括那些学校之间的辩证7文科，这是在那个时候，只有分行的哲学系统的研究。 The head of the school generally taught dialectic, and out of his teaching grew both the manner of philosophizing and the system of philosophy that prevailed during all the Middle Ages.主管学校普遍教授的辩证，并指出他的教学都增长方式philosophizing和的哲学体系普遍存在的期间，所有的中世纪。 Consequently, the name "Scholastic" was used and is still used to designate the method and system that grew out of the academic curriculum of the schools or, more definitely, out of the dialectical teaching of the masters of the schools (scholastici).因此，命名为“学术”一词，现仍在用于指定的方法和制度的前身的学术课程的学校，或者更肯定，出于辩证教学的主人，学校（ scholastici ） 。 It does not matter that, historically, the Golden Age of Scholastic philosophy, namely, the thirteenth century, falls within a period when the schools, the curriculum of which was the seven liberal arts, including dialectic had given way to another organization of studies, the studia generalia, or universities.不要紧，从历史上看，黄金时代士林哲学，即13世纪，属于一个时期，当学校，课程，这是七文科，包括辩证已让位给另一个组织的研究，该studia generalia ，或大学。 The name, once given, continued, as it almost always does, to designate the method and system which had by this time passed into a new phase of development.的名称，一旦给予，继续，因为它几乎总是这样，到指定的方法和制度已这个时候，通过成为一个新的发展阶段。 Academically, the philosophers of the thirteenth century are known as magistri, or masters; historically, however, they are Scholastics, and continue to be so designated until the end of the medieval period.在学术上，哲学家的13世纪被称为马吉斯特里，或主人;历史上，然而，他们scholastics ，并继续这样做指定年底之前的中世纪时期。 And, even after the close of the Middle Ages, a philosopher or theologian who adopts the method or the system of the medieval Scholastics is said to be a Scholastic.和，甚至结束后，中世纪，哲学家或神学家谁所采用的方法或制度，中世纪的scholastics是说是一个学业。
II.二。 THE SCHOLASTIC PERIOD学术期
The period extending from the beginning of Christian speculation to the time of St. Augustine, inclusive, is known as the Patristic era in philosophy and theology.期间延长从一开始就基督教投机的时候，圣奥古斯丁，包容性，被称为教父的时代，在哲学和神学。 In general, that era inclined to Platonism and underestimated the importance of Aristotle.在一般的，那个时代倾向于柏拉图和低估的重要性，亚里士多德。 The Fathers strove to construct on Platonic principles a system of Christian philosophy.父亲力图建构对柏拉图式的原则，制度，基督教哲学。 They brought reason to the aid of Revelation.他们带来的理由援助的启示。 They leaned, however, towards the doctrine of the mystics, and, in ultimate resort, relied more on spiritual intuition than on dialectical proof for the establishment and explanation of the highest truths of philosophy.他们倾斜，但是，对学说的神秘主义者，并在最终的手段，更依赖于精神的直觉比对辩证的证明，为建立和解释最高的真理，哲学。 Between the end of the Patristic era in the fifth century and the beginning of the Scholastic era in the ninth there intervene a number of intercalary thinkers, as they may be called, like Claudianus Mamertus, Boethius, Cassiodorus, St. Isidore of Seville, Venerable Bede etc., who helped to hand down to the new generation the traditions of the Patristic age and to continue into the Scholastic era the current of Platonism.之间的年底教父的时代，在第五世纪开始学业的时代，在第九届有干预的若干intercalary思想家，因为他们可能被要求，如claudianus mamertus ，波爱修斯， cassiodorus ，圣伊西多尔的塞维利亚，老贝德等，谁帮助，另一方面到新一代的传统教父的年龄，并继续到学业的时代，目前的柏拉图。 With the Carolingian revival of learning in the ninth century began a period of educational activity which resulted in a new phase of Christian thought known as Scholasticism.与法兰克复苏的学习，在第九世纪开始一个时期的教育活动，而导致在一个新的阶段的基督教思想称为士林。 The first masters of the schools in the ninth century Alcuin, Rabanus, etc., were not indeed, more original than Boethius or Cassiodorus; the first original thinker in the Scholastic era was John the Scot (see ERIUGENA, JOHN SCOTUS).第一次的主人，学校在第九世纪阿尔昆，拉巴努等，并没有事实上，更多的原创比波爱修斯或cassiodorus ;第一原来的思想家，在学术时代是苏格兰人约翰（见eriugena ，约翰司各脱） 。 Nevertheless they inaugurated the Scholastic movement because they endeavoured to bring the Patristic (principally the Augustinian) tradition into touch with the new life of European Christianity.不过，他们成立了学术运动，因为他们努力把教父（主要是奥古斯丁）的传统，接触到新的生活，欧洲的基督教。 They did not abandon Platonism.他们没有放弃柏拉图。 They knew little of Aristotle except as a logician.他们知道甚少，亚里士多德，除非是作为logician 。 But by the emphasis they laid on dialectical reasoning, they gave a new direction to Christian tradition in philosophy.但强调他们会省览的辩证推理，他们给一个新的方向，以基督教的传统哲学。 In the curriculum of the schools in which they taught, philosophy was represented by dialectic.在课程的学校，使他们教导，哲学代表的辩证。 On the textbooks of dialectic which they used they wrote commentaries and glosses, into which.关于教科书的辩证，他们用他们写的评论和美化，到其中。 Little by little, they admitted problems of psychology, metaphysics, cosmology, and ethics.点点，他们承认的问题，心理学，形而上学，宇宙学，伦理学。 So that the Scholastic movement as a whole may be said to have sprung from the discussions of the dialecticians.使学术运动作为一个整体，可以说是涌现出从讨论的dialecticians 。
Method, contents, and conclusions were influenced by this origin.方法，内容和结论的影响，这原产地。 There resulted a species of Christian Rationalism which more than any other trait characterizes Scholastic philosophy in every successive stage of its development and marks it off very definitely from the Patristic philosophy, which, as has been said, was ultimately intuitional and mystic.有导致一个物种的基督教理性，这比任何其他性状的特点，士林哲学在每一个连续的阶段，其发展和马克它关闭非常肯定从教父哲学，而我们已说过，最终的直觉和神秘。 With Roscelin, who appeared about the middle of the eleventh century, the note of Rationalism is very distinctly sounded, and the first rumbling is heard of the inevitable reaction, the voice of Christian mysticism uttering its note of warning, and condemning the excess into which Rationalism had fallen.与罗瑟兰，谁出现的关于中第十一世纪，说明理性是非常明显的响起，和第一rumbling是听到的必然反应，声音，基督教神秘主义伪造其注意，警告，并谴责过剩纳入其中理性下降。 In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, therefore, Scholasticism passed through its period of storm and stress.在第十一届和第十二届世纪，因此，士林通过其期风暴和压力。 On the one side were the advocates of reason, Roscelin, Abelard, Peter Lombard; on the other were the champions of mysticism, St. Anselm, St. Peter Damian, St. Bernard, and the Victorines.对一个方主张的理由，罗瑟兰，阿贝拉尔，彼得隆巴德;对其他被冠军的神秘主义，圣安瑟伦，圣彼得达米安，圣伯纳德，和victorines 。 Like all ardent advocates, the Rationalists went too far at first, and only gradually brought their method within the lines of orthodoxy and harmonized it with Christian reverence for the mysteries of Faith.象所有殷切的主张，理性走得太远，在第一，只有逐步带来了他们的方法与线条的正统和统一，它与基督教的崇敬之谜的信心。 Like all conservative reactionists, the mystics at first condemned the use as well as the abuse of reason; they did not reach an intelligent compromise with the dialecticians until the end of the twelfth century.象所有保守reactionists ，神秘主义者在第一次谴责使用，以及被滥用的原因，他们没有达到一种智能的妥协与dialecticians年底前12世纪。 In the final outcome of the struggle, it was Rationalism that, having modified its unreasonable claims, triumphed in the Christian schools, without, however driving the mystics from the field.在最后结果的斗争，这是理性的，经修改了其不合理的索赔，获胜在基督教的学校，没有，但驾驶神秘主义者从外地。
Meantime, Eclectics, like John of Salisbury, and Platonists, like the members of the School of Chartres, gave to the Scholastic movement a broader spirit of toleration, imparted, so to speak, a sort of Humanism to philosophy, so that, when we come to the eve of the thirteenth century, Scholasticism has made two very decided steps in advance.与此同时， eclectics一样，约翰梳士巴利， platonists一样，学校成员的chartres ，给学术运动的更广泛的精神，容忍，传授，所以发言，是一种人文哲学，所以，当我们来前夕， 13世纪，士林作出了两个非常决定的步骤前进。 First, the use of reason in the discussion of spiritual truth and the application of dialectic to theology are accepted with.第一，使用的原因，在讨论真理的精神和辩证的应用，以神学接受。 out protest, so long as they are kept within the bounds of moderation.出抗议，只要他们维持在适度的范围内。 Second, there is a willingness on the part of the Schoolmen to go outside the lines of strict ecclesiastical tradition and learn, not only from Aristotle, who was now beginning to be known as a metaphysician and a psychologist, but also from the Arabians and the Jews, whose works had begun to penetrate in Latin translations into the schools of Christian Europe.第二，有一个愿意就有关部分的schoolmen外出按照严格的宗教传统和学习，而不是只从亚里士多德，谁是现在开始被称为一metaphysician和一名心理学家，而且还从阿拉伯和犹太人，他们的工程已经开始渗透在拉丁美洲翻译成学校的基督教欧洲。 The taking of Constantinople in 1204, the introduction of Arabian, Jewish, and Greek works into the Christian schools, the rise of the universities, and the foundation of the mendicant orders -- these are the events which led to the extraordinary intellectual activity of the thirteenth century, which centered in the University of Paris.采取君士坦丁堡在1204年，引入阿拉伯，犹太，希腊和工程纳入基督教学校，崛起的大学，和基础的mendicant命令-这是事件导致了不平凡的智力活动的第十三世纪，为本，在巴黎大学。 At first there was considerable confusion, and it seemed as if the battles won in the twelfth century by the dialecticians should be fought over again.首先有相当的混乱，似乎如果战斗韩元在12世纪由dialecticians应争取超过一次。 The translations of Aristotle made from the Arabian and accompanied by Arabian commentaries were tinged with Pantheism, Fatalism, and other Neoplatonic errors.翻译亚里士多德提出的由阿拉伯和的陪同下，阿拉伯的评论被带有泛神论，宿命论和其他neoplatonic错误。 Even in the Christian schools there were declared Pantheists, like David of Dinant, and outspoken Averroists, like Siger of Brabant, who bade fair to prejudice the cause of Aristoteleanism.即使是在基督教学校有宣布pantheists ，像国宝的迪南，并直言不讳地averroists一样， siger的布拉班特省，谁八德公平的偏见的原因aristoteleanism 。
These developments were suppressed by the most stringent disciplinary measures during the first few decades of the thirteenth century.这些事态发展被打压最严格的纪律措施，在最初几十年的13世纪。 While they were still a source of danger, men like William of Auvergne and Alexander of Hales hesitated between the traditional Augustinianism of the Christian schools and the new Aristoteleanism, which came from a suspected source.虽然他们仍是一个危险的根源，男性喜欢威廉奥佛涅和亚历山大黑尔斯毫不犹豫地之间传统的奥古斯丁主义的基督教学校和新aristoteleanism ，其中来自一处被怀疑的来源。 Besides, Augustinianism and Platonism accorded with piety, while Aristoteleanism was found to lack the element of mysticism.此外，奥古斯丁主义和柏拉图符合孝道，而aristoteleanism被发现缺乏的元素，神秘主义。 In time, however, the translations made from the Greek revealed an Aristotle free from the errors attributed to him by the Arabians, and, above all, the commanding genius of St. Albertus Magnus and his still more illustrious disciple, St. Thomas Aquinas, who appeared at the critical moment, calmly surveyed the difficulties of the situation, and met them fearlessly, won the victory for the new philosophy and continued successfully the traditions established in the preceding century.在时间，不过，翻译从希腊发现亚里士多德免费从错误归因于他由阿拉伯人，以及上述所有，指挥的天才圣阿尔伯图斯马格努斯和他的仍是更多的杰出弟子，多瑪斯，谁出现在关键时刻，冷静地进行调查的困难情况，并会见了他们无畏无惧地赢得了胜利，为新的哲学，并继续成功的传统，建立了在前面的世纪。 Their contemporary, St. Bonaventure, showed that the new learning was not incompatible with mysticism drawn from Christian sources, and Roger Bacon demonstrated by his unsuccessful attempts to develop the natural sciences the possibilities of another kind which were latent in Aristoteleanism.他们的当代，圣文德，表明新的学习是不符合的神秘主义取自基督教消息人士透露，和罗杰培根证明了他的尝试失败，发展自然科学的可能性，另一种被潜伏在aristoteleanism 。
With Duns Scotus, a genius of the first order, but not of the constructive type, begins the critical phase, of Scholasticism.与邓司各脱，一个天才的一阶，而不是建设性的类型，开始的关键阶段，士林。 Even before his time, the Franciscan and the Dominican currents had set out in divergent directions.甚至之前他的时间，方济各和多米尼加电流已载列在不同的方向。 It was his keen and unrelenting search for the weak points in Thomistic philosophy that irritated and wounded susceptibilities among the followers of St. Thomas, and brought about the spirit of partisanship which did so much to dissipate the energy of Scholasticism in the fourteenth century.这是他热衷于和不懈寻找薄弱点在thomistic哲学恼火和受伤的敏感性之间的追随者圣托马斯，和所带来的精神，党派，其中没有那么多消散的能量士林在14世纪。 The recrudescence of Averroism in the schools, the excessive cultivation of formalism and subtlety, the growth of artificial and even barbarous terminology, and the neglect of the study of nature and of history contributed to the same result.该复发的averroism ，在学校，过度的培养，形式主义和微妙，增长人工，甚至野蛮的术语，忽视了研究的性质和历史贡献，同样的结果。 Ockham's Nominalism and Durandus's attempt to "simplify" Scholastic philosophy did not have the effect which their authors intended. ockham的唯和durandus的企图， “简化”士林哲学并没有影响他们的作者的原意。 "The glory and power of scholasticism faded into the warmth and brightness of mysticism," and Gerson, Thomas à Kempis, and Eckhart are more representative of what the Christian Church was actually thinking in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries than are the Thomists, Scotists, and Ockhamists of that period, who frittered away much valuable time in the discussion of highly technical questions which arose within the schools and possess little interest except for adepts in Scholastic subtlety. “的荣耀和权力，士林褪色到温暖和亮度的神秘主义” ，格尔松，托马斯à马肯培，艾克哈特更代表了什么基督教教堂，实际上是思想在第十四和第十五世纪比是thomists ， scotists ，和ockhamists的那个时期，谁frittered远离了许多宝贵的时间在讨论中高度技术性的问题，产生内部的学校和具有兴趣不大，除了adepts在学校微妙。 After the rise of Humanism, when the Renaissance, which ushered in the modern era, was in full progress, the great Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese commentators inaugurated an age of more healthy Scholasticism, and the great Jesuit teachers, Toletus, Vasquez, and Francisco Suárez, seemed to recall the best days of thirteenth century speculation.后崛起的人文主义，文艺复兴时，迎来了在现代社会的时代，是在全面进步，伟大的意大利语，西班牙语，葡萄牙语和评论家宣誓就职的时代，更健康的士林，伟大的耶稣会的教师， toletus ，今年九月，和旧金山苏亚雷斯，似乎记得，最好的天的13世纪的投机活动。 The triumph of scientific discovery, with which, as a rule, the representatives of Scholasticism in the seats of academic authority had, unfortunately, too little sympathy, led to new ways of philosophizing, and when, finally, Descartes in practice, if not in theory, effected a complete separation of philosophy from theology, the modern era had begun and the age known as that of Scholasticism had come to an end.胜利的科学发现，其中，作为一项规则，代表院在座位的学术管理局已不幸的是，太少的同情，导致了新的途径philosophizing ，而当最后，笛卡尔，在实践中，如果不是在理论，影响一个完整的分离，从神学，哲学，现代的时代已经开始和年龄称为指出，士林已告一段落。
III.三。 THE SCHOLASTIC METHOD学术方法
No method in philosophy has been more unjustly condemned than that of the Scholastics.没有方法在哲学已更不公正的谴责，比该scholastics 。 No philosophy has been more grossly misrepresented.没有哲学，已更严重失实的陈述。 And this is true not only of the details, but also of the most essential elements of Scholasticism.这是真正的不仅是细节，而且最重要的要素士林。 Two charges, especially, are made against the Schoolmen: First, that they confounded philosophy with theology; and second, that they made reason subservient to authority.两项控罪，尤其是对schoolmen ：第一，他们混淆了哲学与神学;第二，他们提出的理由屈从于权威。 As a matter of fact, the very essence of Scholasticism is, first, its clear delimitation of the respective domains of philosophy and theology, and, second, its advocacy of the use of reason.作为一个的问题，事实上，非常的本质，士林是，第一，其明确划定各自领域的哲学和神学，及第二，其倡导的使用理由。
A. Theology and Philosophy答：神学与哲学
Christian thinkers, from the beginning, were confronted with the question: How are we to reconcile reason with revelation, science with faith, philosophy with theology?基督教思想家，从一开始就面临着一个问题：我们如何调和的原因与启示，科学与信仰，哲学与神学？ The first apologists possessed no philosophy of their own.第一辩护士拥有没有哲学，他们自己的。 They had to deal with a pagan world proud of its literature and its philosophy, ready at any moment to flaunt its inheritance of wisdom in the face of ignorant Christians.他们不得不处理一个异教的世界而感到自豪，其文学与哲学，随时准备在任何时候，以标榜其继承的智慧，在面对无知的基督徒。 The apologists met the situation by a theory that was as audacious as it must have been disconcerting to the pagans.该辩护士会见的情况，由一个理论，这是作为大胆的，因为它必须已令人不安向异教徒。 They advanced the explanation that all the wisdom of Plato and the other Greeks was due to the inspiration of the Logos; that it was God's truth, and, therefore, could not be in contradiction with the supernatural revelation contained in the Gospels.他们的先进解释说，所有的智慧，柏拉图和其他希腊人是由于灵感的标志;这是上帝的真理，因此，不能在矛盾与超自然的启示，载于福音。 It was a hypothesis calculated not only to silence a pagan opponent, but also to work constructively.这是一个假设计算，不仅要沉默一异教的对手，而且要进行建设性的工作。 We find it in St. Basil, in Origen, and even in St. Augustine.我们发现它在圣罗勒，在俄，甚至在圣奥古斯丁。 The belief that the two orders of truth, the natural and the supernatural, must harmonize, is the inspiration of intellectual activity in the Patristic era.相信，该两项命令的真理，自然和超自然的，必须统一，是灵感的智力活动在教父时代。 But that era did little to define the limits of the two realms of truth.但那个时代几乎没有界定的界限，这两个领域的真理。 St. Augustine believes that faith aids reason (credo ut intelligam) and that reason aids faith (intelligo ut credam); he is, however, inclined to emphasize the first principle and not the second.圣奥古斯丁认为，信仰艾滋病的原因（信条作为intelligam ）和这个原因，艾滋病的信仰（ intelligo当credam ） ;他，不过，倾向于强调的第一条原则，而不是第二。 He does not develop a definite methodology in dealing with them.他不发展一个明确的方法，在处理与他们。 The Scholastics, almost from the first, attempted to do so.该scholastics ，几乎是从第一，试图这样做。
John Scotus Eriugena, in the ninth century, by his doctrine that all truth is a theophany, or showing forth of God, tried to elevate philosophy to the rank of theology, and identify the two in a species of theosophy.约翰司各脱eriugena ，在第九世纪，用他自己的学说认为，所有真理是神，或显示出来的上帝，试图提升哲学职级的神学，并确定两国在一个物种的theosophy 。 Abelard, in the twelfth century, tried to bring theology down to the level of philosophy, and identify both in a Rationalistic system.阿贝拉尔，在12世纪，试图把神学下降到水平的哲学，并确定双方在一个理性的制度。 The greatest of the Scholastics in the thirteenth century, especially St. Thomas Aquinas, solved the problem for all time, so far as Christian speculation is concerned, by showing that the two are distinct sciences, and yet that they agree.最大的scholastics在13世纪，特别是多瑪斯，解决了这个问题的所有时间，直至目前为止，作为基督教的投机而言，显示这两个是不同的科学，但他们同意。 They are distinct, he teaches, because, while philosophy relies on reason alone, theology uses the truths derived from revelation, and also because there are some truths, the mysteries of Faith, which lie completely outside the domain of philosophy and belong to theology.他们是截然不同的，他任教，因为，而哲学依赖于原因，仅神学使用的真理，来自启示，而且还因为有一些真理，奥秘的信念，这完全是谎言外域的哲学属于神学。 They agree, and must agree, because God is the author of all truth, and it is impossible to think that He would teach in the natural order anything that contradicts what He teaches in the supernatural order.他们同意，而且必须同意，因为上帝是作者的所有真相，是不可能的认为，他将教导，在自然秩序的事，违背了什么，他任教于超自然的秩序。 The recognition of these principles is one of the crowning achievements of Scholasticism.承认这些原则是一个加冕的成就，士林。 It is one of the characteristics that mark it off from the Patristic era, in which the same principles were, so to speak, in solution, and not crystallized in definite expression.这是一个特点，马克，它从教父时代，在这同一原则，可以这么说，在解决方案，而不是结晶，在一定的表达。 lt is the trait which differentiates Scholasticism from Averroism.劳资审裁处是特质，其中的区别士林从averroism 。 It is the inspiration of all Scholastic effort.它是灵感的所有学业的努力。 As long as it lasted Scholasticism lasted, and as soon as the opposite conviction became established, the conviction, namely, that what is true in theology may be false in philosophy, Scholasticism ceased to exist.只要它持续士林持续，并尽快相反的信念，成为既定的，信念，即，什么是真正的在神学可能是虚假的，在哲学，士林不复存在。 It is, therefore, a matter of constant surprise to those who know Scholasticism to find it misrepresented on this vital point.因此，这是问题不断感到意外，谁知道那些士林找到它歪曲了关于这一至关重要的一点。
B. Scholastic Rationalism乙学术理性
Scholasticism sprang from the study of dialectic in the schools.士林兴起，从研究的辩证，在学校。 The most decisive battle of Scholasticism was that which it waged in the twelfth century against the mystics who condemned the use of dialectic.最具决定性的战役中院认为，它掀起了在12世纪对神秘主义者谁谴责利用的辩证。 The distinguishing mark of Scholasticism in the age of its highest development is its use of the dialectical method.区分的标志，在士林的年龄最高的发展是其使用的辩证方法。 It is, therefore, a matter, once more, for surprise, to find Scholasticism accused of undue subservience to authority and of the neglect of reason.因此，这是一件事，一旦更多的，竟然找到士林被告不适当的subservience权威和忽视的原因。 Rationalism is a word which has various meanings.理性是一个字，其中有多种意义。 It is sometimes used to designate a system which, refusing to acknowledge the authority of revelation, tests all truth by the standard of reason.这是有时被用来指定一个制度，拒不承认的权威，启示，测试所有的真理，由标准的理由。 In this sense, the Scholastics were not Rationalists.在这个意义上说， scholastics不理性。 The Rationalism of Scholasticism consists in the conviction that reason is to be used in the elucidation of spiritual truth and in defence of the dogmas of Faith.理性的士林组成，在这样的信念的原因是将用于在澄清真相的精神和在辩护的教条的信仰。 It is opposed to mysticism, which distrusted reason and placed emphasis on intuition and contemplation.这是反对神秘主义，不信任的原因及将重点放在直觉和沉思。 In this milder meaning of the term, all the Scholastics were convinced Rationalists, the only difference being that some, like Abelard and Roscelin, were too ardent in their advocacy of the use of reason, and went so far as to maintain that reason can prove even the supernatural mysteries of Faith, while others, like St. Thomas, moderated the claims of reason, set limits to its power of proving spiritual truth, and maintained that the mysteries of faith could not be discovered and cannot be proved by unaided reason.在这温和一词的含义，所有scholastics深信，理性，唯一的区别，一些像阿贝拉尔和罗瑟兰，过于殷切希望，在他们的倡导使用的原因，到目前为止，以维持这个原因，可以证明即使是超自然的奥秘，信仰，而其他国家，像圣托马斯，缓和的索赔理由，限制其权力证明真理的精神，并坚持认为的奥秘，信仰不能被发现，且无法证明外援的原因。
The whole Scholastic movement, therefore, is a Rationalistic movement in the second sense of the term Rationalism.整个学术运动，因此，是一种理性的运动，在第二意识的任期理性。 The Scholastics used their reason; they applied dialectic to the study of nature, of human nature and of supernatural truth.该scholastics用他们的理由，他们应用的辩证，以研究性质，人的本性和超自然的真理。 Far from depreciating reason, they went as far as man can go -- some modern critics think they went too far -- in the application of reason to the discussion of the dogmas of Faith.到目前为止，从贬值的原因，他们来到据男子可以去-一些现代的批评者认为他们走得太远-在应用的原因来讨论的教条的信仰。 They acknowledged the authority of revelation, as all Christian philosophers are obliged to do.他们承认的权威，启示，因为所有的基督教哲学家有责任这样做。 They admitted the force of human authority when the conditions of its valid application were verified.他们承认，警队的人力管理局的条件时，其有效的应用程序进行了核实。 But in theology, the authority of revelation did not coerce their reason and in philosophy and in natural science they taught very emphatically that the argument from authority is the weakest of all arguments.但在神学，权威的启示并没有强迫其原因，并在哲学和自然科学，在他们的教导非常强调的论点，从权力机构是最弱的所有的论点。 They did not subordinate reason to authority in any unworthy sense of that phrase.他们不服从的理由管理局在任何卑微的意识，这句话。 It was an opponent of the Scholastic movement who styled philosophy "the handmaid of theology", a designation which, however, some of the Schoolmen accepted to mean that to philosophy belongs the honourable task of carrying the light which is to guide the footsteps of theology.这是一个对手的学术运动谁式哲学“ handmaid神学” ，指定，但部分的schoolmen接受指哲学属于这位任务，携带轻便，其中就是要引导的脚步，神学。 One need not go so far as to say, with Barthélemy SaintHilaire, that "Scholasticism, in its general result, is the first revolt of the modern spirit against authority."一有需要不至于说，与barthélemy sainthilaire ， “士林，在其总的结果，是第一反抗现代的精神，反对权威” 。 Nevertheless, one is compelled by the facts of history to admit that there is more truth in that description than in the superficial judgment of the historians who describe Scholasticism as the subordination of reason to authority.不过，一个是迫使由历史事实，承认有更多的真相，在这方面的描述比在表面的判断历史学家谁形容士林作为从属的理由管理局。
C. Details of Scholastic Method长的详情，学术方法
The Scholastic manner of treating the problems of philosophy and theology is apparent from a glance at the body of literature which the Schoolmen produced.学术的方式处理问题的哲学和神学是显而易见的，由一瞥的身体文学，其中schoolmen制作。 The immense amount of commentary on Aristotle, on Peter Lombard, on Boethius, on Pseudo-Dionysius, and on the Scriptures indicates the form of academic activity which characterizes the Scholastic period.巨大的金额评论亚里士多德，对彼得隆巴德，对波爱修斯，就伪狄奥尼修斯，以及对经文显示形式的学术活动的特点在学术上期。 The use of texts dates from the very beginning of the Scholastic era in philosophy and theology, and was continued down into modern times.使用文本日期，从一开始学业的时代，哲学和神学，并持续到近代。 The mature teacher, however, very often embodied the results of his own speculation in a Summa, which, in time became a text in the hands of his successors.成熟的教师，不过，很多时候体现的结果，他自己的投机活动，在总结，这在当时成为一个文本在手中，他的继任者。 The Questiones disputatae were special treatises on the more difficult or the more important topics, and as the name implied, followed the method of debate prevalent in the schools, generally called disputation or determination.该questiones disputatae特别的论文就更加困难，或更重要的课题，并作为名称暗示，其次是方法的辩论中普遍存在的学校，一般所谓的争议或决心。 The Quodlibeta were miscellanies generally in the form of answers to questions which as soon as a teacher had attained a widespread renown, began to come to him, not only from the academic world in which he lived, but from all classes of persons and from every part of Christendom.该quodlibeta被杂记一般在形式问题的答案，其中尽快作为一个教师已达到了一个广泛的知名度，开始来，他不仅从学术的世界中，他住，而是从所有类别的人士，并从每部分基督教。 The division of topics in theology was determined by the arrangement followed in Peter Lombard's "Books of Sentences" (see SUMMA, SIMMULAE), and in philosophy it adhered closely to the order of treatises in Aristotle's works.该司的议题在神学确定的安排，其次是在彼得隆巴德的“书籍判决” （见总结， simmulae ） ，并在哲学，它坚持密切秩序的论文在亚里士多德的工程。 There is a good deal of divergence among the principal Scholastics in the details of arrangement, as well as in the relative values of the sub-titles, "part", "question", "disputation", "article", etc. All, however, adopt the manner of treatment by which thesis, objections, and solutions of objections stand out distinctly in the discussion of each problem.有一个良好的处理分歧，其中主要scholastics在细节上的安排，以及在相对值的分标题， “一部分” ， “问题” ， “争议” ， “文章”等，然而，采取的方式治疗，其中论文，反对意见，和解决方案的反对立场鲜明地指出，在讨论每一个问题。 We find traces of this in Gerbert's little treatise "De rational) et ratione uti" in the tenth century, and it is still more definitely adopted in Abelard's "Sic et non".我们发现的痕迹，这在gerbert的小论文“德理性）等理由，尿路感染， ”在第十世纪，它仍是更多的肯定是通过在阿贝拉尔的“碳化硅等非” 。 It had its root in Aristotelean method, but was determined more immediately by the dialectical activity of the early schools, from which, as was said, Scholasticism sprang.它有根在aristotelean方法，但决心更立即的辩证活动，早期学校，从哪个，有人说，士林兴起。
Much has been said both in praise and in blame of Scholastic terminology in philosophy and theology.已说了很多都在赞扬和指责，在学术上的术语，在哲学和神学。 It is rather generally acknowledged that whatever precision there is in the modern languages of Western Europe is due largely to the dialectic disquisitions of the Scholastics.这是相当普遍承认，无论精度有，在现代语文西欧的主要原因是辩证disquisitions的scholastics 。 On the other hand, ridicule has been poured on the stiffness, the awkwardness, and the barbarity of the Scholastic style.在另一方面，嘲笑已经倾注了对刚度，尴尬，和野蛮的学术作风。 In an impartial study of the question, it should be remembered that the Scholastics of the thirteenth century-and it was not they but their successors who were guilty of the grossest sins of style-were confronted with a terminological problem unique in the history of thought.在一个公正问题的研究，应该记住，该scholastics的13世纪和它不是他们，但他们的接班人，谁犯粗暴捷联惯导系统的作风面对一个用语的问题，独特的思想史。 They came suddenly into possession of an entirely new literature, the works of Aristotle.他们来突然拥有一个完全新文学，工程亚里士多德。 They spoke a language, Latin, on which the terminology of Aristotle in metaphysics psychology etc., had made no impression.他们以一种语言，拉丁语，对其中的术语亚里士多德在形而上学的心理学等，作出了没有印象。 Consequently, they were obliged to create all at once Latin words and phrases to express the terminology of Aristotle, a terminology remarkable for its extent, its variety, and its technical complexity.因此，他们有责任创造一次将所有拉丁美洲单词和短语来表达术语的亚里士多德，一个术语，其显着的程度，其品种，其技术的复杂性。 They did it honestly and humbly, by translating Aristotle's phrases literally; so that many a strange-sounding Latin phrase in the writings of the Schoolmen would be very good Aristotelean Greek, if rendered word for word into that language.他们这样做，是诚实和谦虚，翻译亚里士多德的词组从字面上来看，所以有很多奇怪的冠冕堂皇的拉丁语词组在著作的schoolmen将是很好的aristotelean希腊，如果提供逐字逐句地到该语言。 The Latin of the best of the Scholastics may be lacking in elegance and distinction; but no one will deny the merits of its rigorous severity of phrase and its logical soundness of construction.拉丁美洲的最好的scholastics可能缺乏在优雅和区别，但没有人会否认的优点，其严格的严重性，短语和其逻辑的稳健性建设。 Though wanting the graces of what is called the fine style, graces which have the power of pleasing but do not facilitate the task of the learner in philosophy, the style of the thirteenth-century masters possesses the fundamental qualities, clearness, conciseness, and richness of technical phrase.虽然想了青睐什么是所谓的优良作风，青睐，其中有权力讨好，但不便利的任务学习者在哲学，作风第十三世纪的主人，具备的基本素质，清晰，简洁，和丰富技术词组。
IV.四。 THE CONTENTS OF THE SCHOLASTIC SYSTEM内容学术系统
In logic the Scholastics adopted all the details of the Aristotelean system, which was known to the Latin world from the time of Boethius.在逻辑scholastics通过的所有细节的aristotelean系统，该系统被称为向拉美从世界的时候，波爱修斯。 Their individual contributions consisted of some minor improvements in the matter of teaching and in the technic of the science.其个人的贡献，构成了一些轻微的改善在这一问题上的教学，以及在技术科学。 Their underlying theory of knowledge is also Aristotelean.其基本理论知识，也是aristotelean 。 It may be described by saying that it is a system of Moderate Realism and Moderate Intellectualism.它可被称为说，它是一个系统的温和现实主义和温和的intellectualism 。 The Realism consists in teaching that outside the mind there exist things fundamentally universal which correspond to our universal ideas.现实主义的组成在教学以外的心目中存在着的东西，从根本上普遍对应于我们普遍的想法。 The Moderate Intellectualism is summed up in the two principles:温和intellectualism是，归纳起来有两个原则：
all our knowledge is derived from sense-knowledge; and我们所有的知识是来自意识，知识;
intellectual knowledge differs from sense-knowledge, not only in degree but also in kind.智力知识不同于意识，知识，而不是只在程度上，而且在实物。
In this way, Scholasticism avoids Innatism, according to which all our ideas, or some of our ideas, are born with the soul and have no origin in the world outside us.就这样，士林，避免innatism ，根据所有我们的想法，或我们的一些想法，是天生的灵魂并没有在原产地以外的世界。 At the same time, it avoids Sensism, according to which our so-ealled intellectual knowledge is only sense-knowledge of a higher or finer sort.在同一时间内，它避免了sensism ，根据我们的，所以ealled智力知识只是意识，知识的更高或更精细的排序。 The Scholastics, moreover, took a firm stand against the doctrine of Subjectivism.该scholastics ，此外，采取了坚定的立场，反对主观主义。 In their discussion of the value of knowledge they held that there is an external world which is real and independent of our thoughts.在他们的讨论，知识的价值，他们认为，有一个外部世界，这是真正的和独立的，我们的想法。 In that world are the forms which make things to be what they are.在这世界是形式，使事情得到什么他们。 The same forms received into the mind in the process of knowing cause us not to be the object but to know the object.同样的形式，收到了进入铭记在这个过程中知道的原因，我们不要被对象，但知道的对象。 This presence of things in the mind by means of forms is true representation, or rather presentation.这种存在的东西在头脑的手段形式，是真正的代表性，或者更确切地说，演示文稿。 For it is the objective thing that we are first aware of, not its representation in us.因为这是客观的东西，我们是第一次知道，而不是它的代表性，在我们。
The Scholastic outlook on the world of nature is Aristotelean.学术的世界观，人生观的本质是aristotelean 。 The Schoolmen adopt the doctrine of matter and form, which they apply not only to living things but also to inorganic nature.该schoolmen采取中庸的问题和形式，它们不仅适用于生活的东西，而且还无机的性质。 Since the form, or entelechy is always striving for its own realization or actualization, the view of nature which this doctrine leads to is teleological.因为形式，或entelechy始终是争取自己的实现或现实，自然观这一学说导致是teleological 。 Instead, however, of ascribing purpose in a vague, unsatisfactory manner to nature itself, the Scholastics attributed design to the intelligent, provident author of nature.相反，不过， ascribing的目的，在一个空泛的，不理想的方式本身的性质， scholastics归因于设计的智能，和作者的性质。 The principle of finality thus acquired a more precise meaning, and at the same time the danger of a Pantheistic interpretation was avoided.的原则，终局性，从而获得了更多的确切含义，并在同一时间，危险一pantheistic解释是可以避免的。 On the question of the universality of matter the Schoolmen were divided among themselves, some, like the Franciscan teachers, maintaining that all created beings are material, others, like St. Thomas, holding the existence of "separate forms", such as the angels, in whom there is potency but no matter.关于这个问题的普遍性，无论schoolmen分之间，有些，像方济各教师，维护，所有创造了正的物质，其他人，像圣托马斯，控股的存在， “独立形式” ，如天使，在其中有潜力但不管。 Again, on the question of the oneness of substantial forms, there was a lack of agreement.再次，关于这个问题的统一性大量的表格，有一个缺乏协议。 St. Thomas held that in each individual material substance, organic or inorganic, there is but one substantial form, which confers being, substantiality and, in the ease of man, life, sensation, and reason.圣托马斯认为，在个别材料的实质内容，有机或无机，有一个实质性的形式，赋予正，实体，并在易用性男子，贴近生活，感觉，和理由。 Others, on the contrary, believed that in one substance, man, for instance, there are simultaneously several forms, one of which confers existence, another substantiality, another life, and another, reason.别人，相反，认为，在实质内容之一，男子，举例来说，有同时有几种形式，其中赋予的存在，另一个实体，另一个生活，另一个原因。 Finally, there was a divergence of views as to what is the principle of individuation, by which several individuals of the same species are differentiated from one another.最后，有一个意见分歧，至于是什么的原则，个性化，其中的几个个人的同一品种是有区别的，从一。 St. Thomas taught that the principle of individuation is matter with its determined dimensions, materia signata.圣托马斯教授认为，个性化的原则，无论是其决心大小，本草纲目signata 。 In regard to the nature of man, the first Scholastics were Augustinians.在性质方面的男子，首先scholastics被奥古斯丁会士。 Their definition of the soul is what may be called the spiritual, as opposed to the biological, definition.他们的定义中的灵魂是什么可称为精神，反对把生物的定义。 They held that the soul is the principle of thought-activity, and that the exercise of the senses is a process from the soul through the body not a process of the whole organism, that is, of the body animated by the soul.他们认为，灵魂的原则，发人深省的活动，并行使感官的过程，就是一个从灵魂通过身体不是一个过程，整个有机体，即是该机构的动画由灵魂。 The Scholastics of the thirteenth century frankly adopted the Aristotelean definition of the soul as the principle of life, not of thought merely.该scholastics的13世纪坦白通过aristotelean的定义中的灵魂为原则的生活，而不是思想，只是。 Therefore, they maintained, man is a compound of body and soul, each of which is an incomplete substantial principle the union being, consequently, immediate, vital, and substantial.因此，他们保持，男子是一个复合的身体与灵魂，每这是一个不完整的实质性原则，欧洲联盟，因此，即时的，极其重要的，实质性的。 For them there is no need of an intermediary "body of light" such as St. Augustine imagined to exist.他们是没有需要一个中介“身体轻” ，如圣奥古斯丁想象的存在。 All the vital activities of the individual human being are ascribed ultimately to the soul, as to their active principle, although they may have more immediate principles namely the faculties, such as intellect, the senses, the vegetative and muscular powers.所有重要的活动，人类个体是归因于最终的灵魂，作为其积极的原则，虽然他们可能有更直接的原则，即学院，如智力，感官，营养和肌肉的权力。 But while the soul is in this way concerned with all the vital functions, being, in fact, the source of them, and the body enters as a passive principle into all the activities of the soul, exception must be made in the ease of immaterial thought-activities.不过，虽然灵魂是在这样的关注与所有重要的职能，在目前，事实上，他们的来源，和身体的进入，作为一个被动的原则，纳入所有的活动的灵魂，除必须作出，在纾缓无形资产耐人寻味的活动。 They are, like all the other activities, activities of the individual.他们是，象所有其他活动，活动的个人。 The soul is the active principle of them.灵魂，是积极的原则。 But the body contributes to them, not in the same intrinsic manner in which it contributes to seeing, hearing, digesting etc., but only in an extrinsic manner, by supplying the materials out of which the intellect manufactures ideas.但身体有助于他们，而不是在同一个内在的方式，它有助于视觉，听觉，消化等，但只能在一个外在的方式，通过提供的材料指出，其中智力制成品的想法。 This extrinsic dependence explains the phenomena of fatigue, etc. At the same time it leaves the soul so independent intrinsically that the latter is truly said to be immaterial.这外在的依赖解释的现象，疲劳等在同一时间，它叶片的灵魂，因此，独立在本质上说，后者是真正的说是无关紧要。
From the immateriality of the soul follows its immortality.从immateriality的灵魂如下其不死。 Setting aside the possibility of annihilation, a possibility to which all creatures, even the angels are subject, the human soul is naturally immortal, and its immortality, St. Thomas believes, can be proved from its immateriality.预留的可能性歼灭战，一种可能性，这是所有的动物，即使是天使的主题，人的灵魂，自然是不朽的，其不死，圣托马斯认为，能证明其immateriality 。 Duns Scotus, however, whose notion of the strict requirements of a demonstration was influenced by his training in mathematics, denies the conclusive force of the argument from immateriality, and calls attention to Aristotle's hesitation or obscurity on this point.邓司各脱，不过，其概念的严格要求的示范影响他的训练，在数学，否认了决定性的力量的论点，从immateriality ，并呼吁注意亚里士多德的犹豫或隐晦这一点。 Aristotle, as interpreted by the Arabians, was, undoubtedly, opposed to immortality.亚里士多德，解释由阿拉伯人，是毫无疑问，反对不死。 It was, however, one of St. Thomas's greatest achievements in philosophy that, especially in his opusculum "De unitate intellectus", he refuted the Arabian interpretation of Aristotle, showed that the active intellect is part of the individual soul, and thus removed the uncertainty which, for the Aristoteleans, hung around the notions of immateriality and immortality.然而，它的其中一个圣托马斯的最大成就在哲学，尤其是在他的小品“时点unitate intellectus ” ，他驳斥了阿拉伯的解释，亚里士多德，表明积极的理智的一部分，个人的灵魂，从而取消了不明朗因素，为aristoteleans ，红周围的概念immateriality和永生。 From the immateriality of the soul follows not only that it is immortal, but also that it originated by an act of creation.从immateriality的灵魂如下不仅如此，这是不朽的，而且它源于一项法案的创作。 It was created at the moment in which it was united with the body: creando infunditur, et infundendo creatur is the Scholastic phrase.这是造成目前在它是美国与团体： creando infunditur等infundendo creatur是学术词组。
Scholastic metaphysics added to the Aristotelean system a full discussion of the nature of personality, restated in more definite terms the traditional arguments for the existence of God, and developed the doctrine of the providential government of the universe.在学术上的形而上学添加到aristotelean系统充分讨论的性质，个性，重申在更明确的条款，传统的论据为上帝存在和发展的原则，该providential政府的宇宙。 The exigencies of theological discussion occasioned also a minute analysis of the nature of accident in general and of quantity in particular.紧急的神学讨论occasioned也一分钟分析的性质，意外在秘书长和数量，特别是。 The application of the resulting principles to the explanation of the mystery of the Eucharist, as contained in St. Thomas's works on the subject, is one of the most successful of all the Scholastic attempts to render faith reasonable by means of dialectical discussion.应用所产生的原则，以解释的奥秘，圣体圣事，载于圣托马斯的作品，关于这一主题的，是其中一个最成功的所有学业，企图使信仰的合理手段的辩证讨论。 Indeed, it may be said, in general, that the peculiar excellence of the Scholastics as systematic thinkers consisted in their ability to take hold of the profoundest metaphysical distinctions, such as matter and form, potency and actuality, substance and accident, and apply them to every department of thought.事实上，可以说，在一般情况，特殊卓越的scholastics作为系统构成的思想家，他们有能力把握最深刻的形而上的区别，如此事和形式，效价及现状，实质和意外，并将之适用到每一个部门的思路。 They were no mere apriorists, they recognized in principle and in practice that scientific method begins with the observation of facts.他们没有仅仅apriorists ，他们承认，在原则上和实践证明