Realism denotes two distinct sets of philosophical theories, one regarding the nature of universal concepts and the other dealing with knowledge of objects in the world.现实主义是指两个截然不同的两套哲学理论，一个关于性质的普遍观念和其他处理的知识对象，在世界上。
In late - classical and medieval philosophy, realism was a development of the Platonic theory of Forms and held, generally, that universals such as "red" or "man" have an independent, objective existence, either in a realm of their own or in the mind of God.在晚-古典与中世纪哲学，现实主义是一个发展的柏拉图式的理论形式和举行，一般，共性，如“红色”或“人”有一个独立的，客观存在，无论是在一个境界本国或在心中的上帝。 Medieval realism is usually contrasted with Nominalism, and the classic critiques of realism from this point of view were provided by Peter Abelard and William of Occam.中世纪的现实主义通常是对比与唯名，和经典的批判现实主义从这个角度来看，提供了彼得阿贝拉尔和威廉occam 。
In modern philosophy realism is a broad term, encompassing several movements whose unity lies in a common rejection of philosophical Idealism.在现代哲学的现实主义是一个广泛的来说，包含几个运动的团结，关键在一个共同的排斥反应的哲学唯心主义。 In its most general form realism asserts that objects in the external world exist independently of what is thought about them.在其最一般形式的现实主义断言，物体在外部世界的独立存在是什么的思考。 The most straightforward of such theories is usually known as naive realism.最直截了当的这种理论是通常称为幼稚的现实主义。 It contends that in perception humans are made directly aware of objects and their attributes and thus have immediate access to the external world.它认为，在人类的观感是直接了解对象及其属性，因而立即获得外部世界的。 This view fails, however, to explain perceptual mistakes and illusions, and most realists argue that causal processes in the mind mediate, or interpret, directly perceived appearances.这种看法失败，不过，来解释感性的错误和幻想，最现实主义者认为，因果过程中，考虑到调解，或解释，直接知觉亮相。 Thus the objects remain in essence independent, although the causal mechanism may distort, or even wholly falsify, the individual's knowledge of them.因此，物体在本质上仍然是独立的，虽然因果机制，有可能扭曲，或什至完全伪造，个人的知识。
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The theory of knowledge that maintains that "universals" (general concepts representing the common elements belonging to individuals of the same genus or species) have a separate existence apart from individual objects.理论知识，坚持认为“共性” （一般的概念，代表的共同要素，属于个人的同一属或种）有一个单独的存在，除个别对象。 It stands in contrast to nominalism, which held that universals had no reality apart from their existence in the though of an individual.它的立场相反，唯名，其中认为，共性没有现实的，除了他们的存在，虽然在某个人的。 Plato's insistence that there is a realm of universals above the material universe as real as individual objects themselves had a great influence on medieval thought.柏拉图的坚持是有境界的共性上述物质宇宙的真正作为单独的物体本身有很大的影响，中世纪的思想。
Anselm's form of realism led him to the belief that by giving proper attention to universal concepts one could prove the truths of theology.安瑟伦的形式的现实主义使他相信，给予适当的重视普遍的概念之一，能够证明的真理，神学。 He accepted revealed truth, but was convinced that one should exercise reason in apprehending the truth.他透露，接受真相，但相信一应行使的原因在逮捕的真相。 For example, he was convinced that by "necessary reasons" he could demonstrate the existence of God.举例来说，他相信，由“必要的理由” ，他可以证明上帝存在。 Because God is the greatest of beings, Anselm reasoned in his Proslogion, he must exist in reality as well as in thought, for if he existed in thought only, a greater being could be conceived of.因为上帝是最伟大的人，安瑟伦理性在他的proslogion ，他必须存在于现实，以及在思想，如果他中存在的思想，只有一个更大的作为，可以设想。 Thus from consideration of an ideal or universal Anselm believed that he could derive truth about what actually exists.因此，从考虑一个理想的或普遍的安瑟伦认为，他可以从中真相究竟存在。
Augustine had modified Plato's realism by holding that universals existed before the material universe in God's creative mind.奥古斯丁修改了柏拉图的现实主义所认为的共性之前所存在的物质宇宙中的上帝的创意思维。 This viewpoint was expanded by twelfth century ultrarealists, such as Duns Scotus, Odo of Tournai, and William of Champeaux (in his early years), to posit that the logical and real orders are exactly parallel.这个观点，扩大了第十二世纪ultrarealists ，如邓司各脱， odo的图尔奈，和威廉champeaux （在他的早期年） ， posit认为，合乎逻辑的和现实的订单是完全平行。 By proposing that universals come before individuals, the ultrarealists maintained that the reality of individuals came from the universal.所提出的共性来之前，对个人来说， ultrarealists坚持认为，现实的个人，来自世界。 Thus humanity as a universal preceded individual men.因此，人类作为一个普遍性之前，个别的男子。 In this fashion they explained theological concepts such as transmission of original sin in the human race and the oneness of the Trinity: God comes first; Father, Son and Holy Spirit share together in God.在此时装他们解释的神学概念，如传输的原罪，在人类和统一性的三位一体：上帝至上;父，子和圣灵一起分享上帝的。
Thomas Aquinas in his Summa Theologica amended this ultrarealist position by developing Aristotle's doctrine that universals have a being only in material objects.托马斯阿奎那在他的总结theologica修订，这ultrarealist的立场，通过发展亚里士多德的学说认为，共性有一个只有在实物。 According to Aquinas we cannot assert that universals exist wholly apart from individual objects inasmuch as we know of them only through sensory impressions of individual objects.据阿奎那，我们不能断言，共性存在完全除个别对象，因为我们知道，他们只有通过感官的印象，个别对象。 Thus universals are abstracted from the knowledge rooted in individual things.因此，抽象的共性是从知识植根于个人的东西。 This "moderate realism" stressed that human reason could not totally grasp God's being.这种“温和的现实主义”强调指出，人类理性不能完全掌握上帝的福祉。 One could profitably use reason, then, to determine universals, and one could use reason in theology whenever it was concerned with the connection between universals and individual objects.一可以有利可图的使用理由，那么，以确定的共性，一可以利用的原因，在神学，每当它感到关切与之间的联系，共性和个别对象。
Realism had a great effect on the "natural theology" of medieval scholasticism.现实主义有一个很大的影响“自然神学”的中世纪经院。 It affected both the method of demonstration and the shape of the theological dogmas which resulted.这既影响的方法，示范和形状的神学教条，而导致。 One notes its influence to a lesser extent after the Reformation in both Roman Catholic Neo - Thomist circles and among Protestants who emphasize the "unity" of the human race in the passing on of original sin (eg, WGT Shedd). 1注意到它的影响力在较小的程度后，改革在这两个罗马天主教新保守主义-t homist各界和新教徒之间谁强调“团结”的人类在通过对原罪（例如， w gt谢德） 。
DA Rausch大rausch
(Elwell Evangelical Dictionary) （ elwell福音事工促进会，字典）
Bibliography
参考书目
DM Armstrong,
Universals and Scientific Realism: Nominalism and Realism, II; F Copleston,
History of Philosophy, II; R Seeberg, Textbook of the History of Doctrines; M
deWulf, History of Medieval Philosophy, I; WGT Shedd, Dogmatic Theology; E
Gilson, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle
Ages.马克阿姆斯特朗，共性和科学的现实主义：唯和现实主义，二女copleston ，哲学史上的第一，第二; r seeberg
，教科书的历史理论;米dewulf ，历史，中世纪哲学，我; wgt谢德，教条式的神学电子商务吉尔松，历史上基督教哲学在中世纪。
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