The papacy denotes the office of the pope, or bishop of Rome, and the system of central ecclesiastical government of the Roman Catholic Church over which he presides.教宗指办公室的教宗，或罗马的主教，以及系统的中央教会政府的罗马天主教会超过他所主持的。 Believed by Roman Catholics to be the successor of the apostle Peter, the pope grounds his claim to jurisdictional primacy in the church in the so - called Petrine theory.相信由罗马天主教会的继任者使徒彼得表示，教宗的理由，他声称管辖的首要在教会里，在这么-所谓p etrine理论。 According to that theory, affirmed by the Council of Florence in 1439, defined as a matter of faith by the First Vatican Council in 1870, and endorsed by the Second Vatican Council in 1964, Jesus Christ conferred the position of primacy in the church upon Peter alone.根据这一理论，肯定会在1439年佛罗伦斯，界定为一个问题，信仰的由第一，梵蒂冈会在1870年，并赞同由梵蒂冈第二次会议于1964年，耶稣基督所赋予的立场，首要在教会后，黄匡源单独的。 In solemnly defining the Petrine primacy, the First Vatican Council cited the three classical New Testament texts long associated with it: John 1:42, John 21:15 ff., and, above all, Matthew 16:18 ff.在庄严界定petrine的首要地位，第一，梵蒂冈会举出三个古典新约圣经的文本，只要与此相关：约翰1时42分，约翰21时15法郎。 ，并在上述所有，马修16时18法郎。
The council understood these texts, along with Luke 22:32, to signify that Christ himself constituted Saint Peter as prince of the apostles and visible head of the church, possessed of a primacy of jurisdiction that was to pass down in perpetuity to his papal successors, along with the authority to pronounce infallibly on matters of faith or morals.安理会理解这些文本，随着卢克22时32分，意味基督本人构成了圣彼得大教堂，作为王子的使徒和有形的首长，教会，拥有一个至高无上的司法管辖权，这是通过在永久他教皇的接班人，随管理局宣告infallibly事宜，信仰或道德。
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During the 4th and 5th centuries, after the Roman emperor Constantine's grant of toleration to Christianity (the Edict of Milan, 313) and its rise to the status of an official religion, a series of popes, most notably Leo I (r. 440 - 61), translated that claim into a primacy of jurisdiction over the church.在第四和第五世纪后，罗马皇帝君士坦丁的赠款的耐受性，以基督教（该法令的米兰， 313 ）及其引起的地位，官方宗教，一系列的教皇，最显着的低地球轨道（ r. 440 - 61 ） ，翻译这种说法成为一个至高无上的管辖权，教会。 That claim was matched, however, by the rival claim of the church at Constantinople to a jurisdictional primacy in the East equal to that of Rome in the West.这种说法是匹配的，但是，对手的要求，教会在君士坦丁堡到一个至高无上的司法管辖，在东方等于说，罗马的，在西方。 In fact, for at least another century, it was the Byzantine emperor of Constantinople who could actually claim to be functioning as the supreme leader of Christendom in spiritual as well as temporal matters.事实上，在至少一个世纪，这是拜占庭帝国皇帝的君士坦丁堡谁其实可以自称为运作的最高领导人在基督教的精神，以及颞事宜。
In the 8th century, after the rise of Islam had weakened the Byzantine Empire and the Lombards had renewed their pressure in Italy, the popes finally sought support from the Frankish rulers of the West and received (754) from the Frankish king Pepin The Short the Italian territory later known as the Papal States. With the crowning (800) by Leo III of Charlemagne, first of the Carolingian emperors, the papacy also gained his protection.在8世纪后，伊斯兰教的崛起削弱了拜占庭帝国和lombards重申了他们的压力，在意大利，教皇最后寻求支持，从法兰克统治者西，并收到（ 754 ）从法兰克国王pepin短了意大利领土后来被称为教皇国。与加冕（ 800 ）由低地球轨道的第三查理，首先该法兰克皇帝，在位期间也获得了他的保护。
By the late 9th century, however, the Carolingian empire had disintegrated, the imperial government in Italy was powerless, and the bishopric of Rome had fallen under the domination of the nobles.由已故的第九世纪，然而，法兰克帝国已经解体，帝国政府在意大利是无能为力，和bishopric罗马的下降，根据统治的贵族。 Once again the papacy sought aid from the north, and in 962, Pope John XII crowned the German king Otto I emperor.再次教皇寻求援助，从北，并在962 ，教皇约翰十二冠，德国国王奥托一世皇帝。 In this revived empire, soon called the Holy Roman Empire, the pope theoretically was the spiritual head, and the emperor the temporal head.在这恢复帝国，尽快所谓的神圣罗马帝国，教宗在理论上是精神头，和皇帝颞头部。 The relationship between temporal and spiritual authority, however, was to be a continuing arena of contention.之间的关系，时间和精神权威，然而，要持续舞台上的争论。 Initially, the emperors were dominant and the papacy stagnated.最初，皇帝的主导和教皇停滞不前。 The emperors themselves, however, set the papacy on the road to recovery.皇帝自己，不过，订定教宗对复苏的道路。 In 1046, Emperor Henry III deposed three rival claimants to the papal office and proceeded to appoint, in turn, three successors.在1046年，皇帝亨利三世废黜3竞争对手声称教皇办公室，并着手任命，在转， 3接班人。 With the appointment in 1049 of Leo IX, the third of these, the movement of church reform, which had been gathering momentum in Burgundy and Lorraine, finally came to Rome.随着任命在1049年的利奥九，第三这些，不结盟运动的教会改革，已收集的势头，在勃艮第和洛林，最后来到罗马。 It found there in Leo and in a series of distinguished successors the type of unified central leadership it had previously lacked.它在那里发现，在低地球轨道，并在一系列的杰出的接班人，类型统一的中央领导，它以前曾缺乏。
With the papacy taking the leadership in reform, the second great phase in the process of its rise to prominence began, one that extended from the mid 11th to the mid 13th century.与教宗以领导在改革，第二阶段的伟大进程中崛起突出开始，一延长年年中从第11到13世纪中期。 It was distinguished, first, by Gregory VII's bold attack after 1075 on the traditional practices whereby the emperor had controlled appointments to the higher church offices, an attack that spawned the protracted civil and ecclesiastical strife in Germany and Italy known as the Investiture Controversy.这是尊敬的，首先，由格雷戈里七世的大胆攻击后， 1075年对传统的做法，即皇帝已控制任命较高的教会办事处，攻击促成了长期内战和宗教纷争在德国和意大利称之为investiture争议。 It was distinguished, second, by Urban II's launching in 1095 of the Crusades, which, in an attempt to liberate the Holy Land from Muslim domination, marshaled under papal leadership the aggressive energies of the European nobility.这是尊敬，第二，由市区二世的发射在1095年的十字军东征，这在试图解放圣地从穆斯林统治，形成鲜明对比下，教宗的领导侵略战争的精力欧洲贵族。 Both these efforts, although ultimately unsuccessful, greatly enhanced papal prestige in the 12th and 13th centuries.无论这些努力，虽然最终没有成功，大大增强了教皇的威望，在第12和13世纪。 Such powerful popes as Alexander III (r. 1159 - 81), Innocent III (r. 1198 - 1216), Gregory IX (r. 1227 - 41), and Innocent IV (r. 1243 - 54) wielded a primacy over the church that attempted to vindicate a jurisdictional supremacy over emperors and kings in temporal and spiritual affairs.这种强大的教皇亚历山大三世（ r. 1159 -8 1） ，诺森三世（ r .1 198- 12 16），格雷戈里第九章（ r . 12 27-4 1） ，和无辜四（r . 1 24 3-54 ）挥舞一优先教会试图平反管辖权凌驾皇帝和国王在时间和精神上的事务。
This last attempt proved to be abortive.这个最后的尝试被证明是白费了。 If Innocent IV triumphed over Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, a mere half - century later Boniface VIII (r. 1294 - 1303) fell victim to the hostility of the French king Philip IV.如果无辜的四战胜罗马皇帝，冯检二，仅仅半年-世纪后波尼法爵八（ r .1 294- 13 03）下跌受害者的敌意，法国国王菲利普四。 In 1309, Pope Clement V left Rome and took up residence in Avignon, the beginning of the so - called Babylonian Captivity (1309 - 78), during which all the popes were French, lived in Avignon, and were subject to French influence, until Gregory XI returned the papacy to Rome.在1309年，教皇克莱门特v离开罗马，并讨论了居住在亚维侬，开始了，所以-所谓的巴比伦囚禁（ 1 309- 78 ），在此期间的所有教皇被法国，住在亚维侬，并受法国影响，直到格雷戈里席教宗返回罗马。 During the 13th and 14th centuries, therefore, papal authority over the universal church was exercised increasingly at the sufferance of national rulers and local princes of Europe.在第13和14世纪之交，因此，教宗的权力，普世教会行使越来越多在容受国家的统治者和地方的王子欧洲。 This fact became dismally clear during the Great Schism of the West (1378 - 1418), when two, and later three, rival claimants disputed for the papal office, dividing the church into rival "obediences"; in their desperate attempts to win support, the claimants opened the way to the exploitation of ecclesiastical resources for dynastic and political ends.这成为令人沮丧的事实清楚，在大分裂的西（ 1378 -1 418） ，当二，后来三，竞争对手的索赔争议，为教皇办公室，除以教会成为竞争对手“ o bediences” ，在他们的绝望企图争取支持，索赔人开辟了道路剥削教会资源王朝和政治目的。
The years of schism, then, and the related efforts of the general councils of Constance and Basel to limit the papal authority, saw the onset of the process whereby the papacy was reduced to the status of an Italian principality.多年的分裂，那么，和相关的努力，一般议会的康斯坦茨湖和巴塞尔，以限制教皇权威，看到了发病过程，让教宗减少到的地位，意大利，摩纳哥。 Its supreme authority over the universal church had come to be no more than theoretical, the power over the national and territorial churches having passed to kings, princes, and rulers of such city - states as Venice.其最高权力机构超过普世教会已经到了不超过理论，电力超过国家和领土完整，教会通过了国王，王子，和统治者的这种城市-国威尼斯。
Not until the election (1534) of Paul III, who placed the papacy itself at the head of a movement for churchwide reform, did the Counter - Reformation begin.直到选举（ 1534年）保罗三，谁把教皇本身在头一个运动churchwide改革，有没有反-改革的开始。 Paul established a reform commission, appointed several leading reformers to the College of Cardinals, initiated reform of the central administrative apparatus at Rome, authorized the founding of the Jesuits, the order that was later to prove so loyal to the papacy, and convoked the Council of Trent, which met intermittently from 1545 to 1563.保罗成立了一个改革委员会，任命了几个领导改革者，以学院的枢机，发起改革的中央行政器具在罗马签署的，授权成立的耶稣会士，为了后来被证明，使忠于教宗，并召集安理会特伦特的，符合间歇性，从1545年至1563年。 The council succeeded in initiating a far - ranging moral and administrative reform, including the reform of the papacy itself, that was destined to define the shape and set the tone of Roman Catholicism into the mid - 20th century.安理会成功地发起至今-包括道德和行政改革，包括改革教宗本身，这是注定要界定的形状和定下了基调的罗马天主教到中-二十世纪。 The 16th century also saw the development of foreign missions, which were encouraged by the popes and enhanced their prestige. 16世纪也看到了发展的外国使团，这是鼓励由教皇和增强他们的威信。
What this event actually foreshadowed was the demise of the papal temporal power.什么这个事件，其实是预示消亡教皇时间功率。 Although in the wake of the Napoleonic Wars the Congress of Vienna (1815) restored the Papal States, they were forcibly annexed to the new Kingdom of Italy in 1870, and not until 1929 with the Lateran Treaty was the "Roman Question" - the problem of nonnational status for the pope - solved.虽然在之后的拿破仑战争美国国会的维也纳（ 1815年）恢复了教皇国，他们被强行所附的新英国，意大利在1870年，而不是直到1929年与拉特朗条约是“罗马问题” -问题nonnational的地位，为教宗-解决。 The treaty, which created in the heart of Rome a tiny, sovereign Vatican state, restored to the papacy a measure of temporal independence but left it with political influence rather than actual political power.该条约，创造了在罗马的心脏弹丸之地，梵蒂冈的主权国家，恢复到教皇的一项措施颞独立，但离开它与政治影响力，而不是实际的政治权力。
Paradoxically, the eclipse of papal temporal power during the 19th century was accompanied by a recovery of papal prestige.矛盾的是，这次月食的教皇时间功率在19世纪伴随着经济复苏的罗马教皇的威信。 The monarchist reaction in the wake of the French Revolution and the later emergence of constitutional governments served alike, though in different ways, to sponsor that development.该monarchist反应在后，法国大革命和后来出现的宪制政府服务一样，虽然以不同的方式，赞助发展。 The reinstated monarchs of Catholic Europe saw in the papacy a conservative ally rather than a jurisdictional rival.该恢复君主天主教欧洲所看到的教宗是一个保守的盟友，而不是一个司法管辖的竞争对手。 Later, when the institution of constitutional governments broke the ties binding the clergy to the policies of royal regimes, Catholics were freed to respond to the renewed spiritual authority of the pope.后来，当机构的宪制政府打破关系具有约束力的神职人员的政策，皇家制度，天主教徒被释放，以回应新的精神权威的教宗。
The popes of the 19th and 20th centuries have come to exercise that authority with increasing vigor and in every aspect of religious life.该教皇的19世纪和20世纪来行使这一权力日益蓬勃的生机和在各个方面的宗教生活。 By the crucial pontificate of Pius IX (r. 1846 - 78), for example, papal control over worldwide Catholic missionary activity was firmly established for the first time in history.由关键的教宗碧岳九（ r. 1846 -7 8） ，举例来说，罗马教皇的控制权全世界天主教传教活动是牢固确立为在历史上第一次。 The solemn definition of the papal primacy by the First Vatican Council gave clear theoretical underpinnings to Pius IX's own commitment to an intensified centralization of ecclesiastical government in Rome.庄严的定义，教皇的首要由第一梵蒂冈会了明确的理论基础，以碧岳九自己的承诺，加紧中央集权的教会，政府在罗马。 The council's companion definition of papal infallibility strengthened the energetic exercise of the papal magisterial power that was so marked a feature of the years between Vatican I and the assembly of the Second Vatican Council in 1962.安理会的同伴的定义，教皇infallibility加强充满活力的行使教皇地方法院的权力是如此显着的一个特点，几年之间，梵蒂冈，我和大会梵蒂冈第二次会议于1962年。
The continuing strength of the forces within the church favoring theological innovation and energetic reform became unmistakably evident at the Second Vatican Council, convened by John XXIII (r. 1958 - 63), and found expression especially in its decrees on ecumenism, religious liberty, the liturgy, and the nature of the church.持续的力量，力量与教会偏袒神学创新和充满活力的改革成为无误明显在梵蒂冈第二次会议，召开了由约翰二十三世（ r. 1958 -6 3） ，并发现表达，尤其是在其法令对基督信仰合一，宗教的自由，礼仪，人与自然的教会。 The ambivalence of some of those decrees, however, and the disciplinary turmoil and doctrinal dissension following the ending of the council, brought about new challenges to papal authority.矛盾的一些人的法令，但是，和纪律风暴和理论纠纷后，结束本局，带来了新的挑战教皇权威。 The establishment of national conferences of bishops tended to erode it to some degree, and Paul VI's encyclical Humanae Vitae (1968), reaffirming the prohibition of artificial birth control, was met with both evasion and defiance.建立国家会议的主教们倾向于削弱它在一定程度上，和禄六世的通谕中humanae简历（ 1968年） ，重申禁止人工控制生育，遭到了双方逃税和藐视。 By the late 1970s papal authority itself had become a bone of contention.由20世纪70年代末教皇权力机构本身已成为一个争论的焦点。
Paul VI (r. 1963 - 78), however, continued the ecumenical efforts of John XXIII in his contacts with Protestant and Orthodox churches, as in his attempt to make discreet moves in the direction of pragmatic accommodation with the communist regimes of eastern Europe, a policy that would have been unthinkable during the reigns of Pius XI and Pius XII.禄六世（ r. 1963 -7 8） ，不过，继续合一的努力，约翰二十三世在他的接触，新教和东正教教堂，因为在他企图使谨慎的动作的方向，务实的住宿与共产主义政权的东欧，这一政策将一直不堪设想期间统治碧岳十一和碧岳十二。 Paul also reorganized the curia and spoke strongly for peace and social justice.保罗也改组教廷，并以强烈的和平和社会正义。 With the accession of the Polish John Paul II (1978 - ) the church had, for the first time since Adrian VI in the 16th century, a non - Italian pope.与加入的波兰教宗若望保禄二世（ 1978年-）教会，为以来的第一次阿德里安六世在1 6世纪，一个非-意大利教宗。
Francis Oakley弗朗西斯厂商Oakley
Bibliography
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As head of the Roman Catholic Church the pope is considered the successor of Peter and the vicar of Christ.担任罗马天主教教皇被认为是继任者彼得和副主教基督。 He is also, and first of all, the bishop of Rome and, for Eastern Christians, the patriarch of the West.他亦是，首先，罗马的主教，并为东部的基督徒，老人家的西方国家。 The term pappa, from which the word "pope" is derived, originated in ancient colloquial Greek as an endearing term for "father," and was then applied, beginning in the third century, to Eastern patriarchs, bishops, abbots, and eventually parish priests (of whom it is still used today).任期pappa ，从哪个字， “教宗”是衍生的，起源于古代的口语希腊作为一个endearing任期为“爸爸” ，和当时的应用，开始在第三个世纪，东部patriarchs ，主教， abbots ，并最终堂司铎（其中，这是今天仍在使用） 。 In the West the term was never very common outside Rome (originally a Greek-speaking church), and from the sixth century became reserved increasingly for the bishop of Rome, until in the later eleventh century Pope Gregory VII made that official.在西方国家的任期是从来没有很普遍的以外罗马（本来是一个希腊为母语的教会） ，并从第六世纪成为保留日益为罗马的主教，直到在后来的11世纪罗马教皇格雷戈里第七作出官方。 The term "papacy" (papatus), meant to distinguish the Roman bishop's office from all other bishoprics (episcopatus), also originated in the later eleventh century.术语“教皇” （ papatus ） ，是指区分罗马主教的办公室从所有其他bishoprics （ episcopatus ） ，也源于在后来的11世纪。
For Catholics the papacy represents an office divinely instituted by Christ in his charge to Peter (Matt. 16:18-19; Luke 22:31-32; John 21:15-17), and therefore something to be revered and obeyed as a part of Christian faith and duty.天主教徒的教宗代表了一个办事处，神由基督由他负责的彼得（ matt. 16:18-19 ;路加福音22:31-32 ;约翰21:15-17 ） ，因此一些被崇敬和服从作为部分基督徒的信仰和责任。 But the papal role has in fact varied from age to age, and a historical survey is required first to put papal claims into perspective.但教皇的作用，已在事实上，不同年龄的年龄，和一个历史的调查是需要首先向教宗索赔到的角度。
Between the midfourth and the midfifth centuries, the apogee of the Western imperial church, Roman popes developed and articulated those claims which were to become characteristic.之间的midfourth和midfifth世纪，远地点的西方帝国的教会，罗马教皇发达国家和阐述了这些索赔，这要成为特征。 Over against emperors and patriarchs in Constantinople, who claimed that their church in "new Rome" virtually equaled that of "old Rome," the popes asserted vehemently that their primacy derived from Peter and not from their political setting, making theirs the only truly "apostolic see."超过对帝王和patriarchs在君士坦丁堡，谁声称，他们的教会在“新罗马”几乎持平，即“老罗马”教皇断言强烈，他们的首要来自彼得，而不是从他们的政治背景，使得他们的唯一真正“使徒见“ 。 Siricius (384-98) and Innocent (401-17) issued the first extant decretals, letters modeled on imperial rescripts in which popes ruled definitively on matters put to them by local churches.西里修（ 384-98 ）和无辜（ 401-17 ）发出首份现存decretals ，书信为蓝本帝国rescripts ，其中教皇裁定确定的事项向他们提出的地方教会。 Leo the Great (440-61), who first appropriated the old pagan title of pontifex maximus, intervened with his Tome at the Council of Chalcedon to establish orthodox Christology, told a recalcitrant archbishop that he merely "participated in" a "fullness of power" reserved to popes alone (this later to become an important principle in canon law), and provided in his letters and sermons a highly influential description of the Petrine office and its primacy, drawing in part upon principles found in Roman law.利奥伟大（ 440-61 ） ，谁第一拨旧异教的标题pontifex Maximus ，为干预他圣多美和普林西比在安理会的迦克墩设立东正教christology说，桀骜不驯的大主教说，他只是“参加了” ， “丰满的权力“预留的教皇单（这后来成为一个重要的原则，在教会法） ，并提供了在他的信件和说教一个高度影响力的描述的petrine办公室和其至高无上，绘画，在部分原则后，发现在罗马法。 Gelasius (492-96), finally, over against emperors inclined to intervene at will in ecclesiastical affairs, asserted an independent and higher pontifical authority in religious matters.格拉西（ 492-96 ） ，最后，超过对帝王倾向于干预会在教会事务，宣称一个独立的和更高的宗座管理局在宗教事务。
Throughout the early Middle Ages (600-1050) papal claims remained lofty, but papal power diminished considerably.在整个中世纪早期（ 600-1050 ）教皇的索赔仍是崇高的，但罗马教皇的权力大大减少。 All churches, East and West, recognized in the "vicar of St. Peter" a certain primacy of honor, but the East virtually never consulted him and the West only when it was expedient.所有教堂，东方和西方，承认在“副主教圣彼得”某一个至高无上的荣誉，但东，几乎从来没有征询他和西方只有当它是权宜之计。 In practice, councils of bishops, with kings often presiding over them, ruled in the various Western territorial churches.在实践中，议会的主教，与国王常常主持，排除在各种西方教会的领土。 Reform initiatives came from the outside, even when (as with Boniface and Charlemagne) they sought normative guidance from Rome.改革举措是来自外界，甚至当（与博尼法斯和查理曼）他们要求的规范性指导，从罗马。 Two innovations deserve mention: in the mideighth century the papacy broke with the Eastern ("Roman") emperor and allied itself henceforth with Western royal powers; at the same time popes laid claims to the papal states, lands in central Italy meant to give them autonomy but in fact burdening them with political responsibilities which became very damaging to their spiritual mission during the later Middle Ages and were not finally removed until the forcible unification of Italy in 1870.两个创新值得一提：在mideighth世纪的教宗打破了与东区（ “罗马” ） ，皇帝和专职本身，今后与西方皇室的权力;在同一时间，奠定了教皇自称为教皇国，地政局在意大利中部的意思，让他们自治，但事实上他们的负担与政治责任，而成为非常严重损害他们的精神使命，在稍后的中世纪并没有取消，直到最后强行统一，意大利在1870年。
The papacy emerged during the High Middle Ages (1050-1500) as the real leader of Western Christendom, beginning with the so-called Gregorian reform movement (its claims neatly epitomized in twenty-seven dicta noted down by Pope Gregory VII), culminating initially in the reign of Pope Innocent III (his reforms permanently inscribed in the Fourth Lateran Council), and waning again during the Great Schism and the conciliar movement.教宗出现在高中世纪（ 1050年至1500年）作为真正的领导人，西方基督教，开始与所谓的阳历的改革运动（其索赔整齐地概括了在2007年dicta记下由罗马教皇格雷戈里七） ，最终导致最初在统治诺森三世（他的改革永久铭刻在第四次拉特兰会） ，和日渐缩小的期间再次大分裂和conciliar运动。 In 1059 a new election law (with modifications made in 1179, the same as that in force today) raised the pope above all other bishops, who were in principle still elected by their clergy and people.在1059年一个新的选举法（修改作出了在1179年，一样，即在部队今天）提出的教宗以上的其他所有主教，谁都是在原则上仍然选出他们的神职人员和人民。 Henceforth the pope would be elected solely by cardinals, themselves papal appointees given liturgical and administrative responsibilities, and he could be chosen from among all eligible clergymen (preferably cardinals) rather than, as the older law held, only from among Romans.此后，教宗会当选完全是由枢机主教，教宗任命自己的考虑，礼仪及行政责任，他可以选择从所有合资格的神职人员（最好是枢机主教） ，而不是作为老年人法举行的，只有从罗马。 Papal decretals replaced conciliar canons as the routine and normative form of regulation, and this "new law" (little changed prior to the new codes issued in 1917 and 1982) reached down uniformly into every diocese in the West.教宗decretals取代conciliar炮，作为例行性和规范形式的规管，而这个“新的法律” （变动不大，之前，新守则，发出了在1917年和1982年）所达成的一致下降到每一个教区，在西方。 The papal curia or court, reorganized and massively expanded, became the center of ecclesiastical finance and administration.教皇教廷或法院，改组和大规模扩大，成为该中心的教会财务及行政。 Legates carried papal authority into all parts of Europe. legates进行了教皇的权力纳入所有欧洲部分地区。 The papal call to crusade brought thousands of laymen to arms, and eventually had important implications in the area of clerical taxation and the issuing of indulgences.教皇呼吁十字军东征带来了成千上万的普通人武器，并最终有重要影响，在该地区的文书征税和发行indulgences 。 Above all, this revitalized papacy constantly asserted the priority of the spiritual over the material world, and adopted for itself a new title as head of the church, that of "vicar [or placeholder] of Christ."首先，这振兴教皇不断宣称的优先次序的精神超过物质世界，并通过自己的一个新的标题，担任教会，即“副主教[或预留位置]基督” 。
The early modern papacy (1517-1789) began with a staggering defeat.早期现代在位期间（ 1517至1789年）开始与惊人的失败。 Protestant Reformers, persuaded that the papacy had corrupted the gospel beyond all hope of reform, revolted. The so-called Renaissance papacy had largely lost sight of its spiritual mission, and was forced reluctantly into the reforms articulated by the Council of Trent (1545-63).新教改革者，说服教宗已损坏的福音以外的所有希望改革的力度，反抗。 即所谓文艺复兴时期的教皇在很大程度上忽略了其精神的使命，并被迫勉强进入改革所阐述的理事会特伦特 （ 1545年- 63 ） 。 The papacy then took charge of deep and lasting reforms in, eg, training clergy, upholding new standards for the episcopal and priestly offices, and providing a new catechism.教宗随即接手负责深刻和持久的改革，例如，培训神职人员，坚持新标准的主教和priestly办事处，并提供了一个新的问答。 The number of cardinals was set at seventy (until the last generation), and "Congregations" were established to oversee various aspects of the church's mission.人数枢机主教定于70 （直到最后一代） ，和“教会”成立，以监督各方面的教会的使命。
The critical attack of Enlightenment thinkers (Josephinism in Austria) together with growing national (Gallicanism in France) and episcopal (Febronianism in Germany) resistance to papal authority culminated in the French Revolution and its aftermath, during which time two popes (Pius VI, Pius VII) endured humiliating imprisonments.关键攻击的启示思想家（ josephinism在奥地利）一起成长的国家（ gallicanism在法国）和主教（ febronianism在德国）的阻力教皇权威，最终在法国大革命及其后遗症，在那个时期，两个教皇（碧岳六，碧岳七）经历了屈辱的监禁。 But the forces of restoration, combined with the official indifference or open hostility of secularized governments, led to a strong resurgence of centralized papal authority known as ultramontanism. Pope Pius IX (1846-78) made this the program of his pontificate, codified it as a part of the Catholic faith in the decrees on papal primacy and infallibility in Vatican Council I (1869-70), and enforced it with an unprecedented degree of Roman centralization that characterized the Catholic Church into the 1960s.但力量恢复，再加上官方的冷漠或公开敌视的世俗政府，引发了一场强烈的死灰复燃，集中教皇权威称为ultramontanism 。教宗比约九（ 1846年至1878年）提出这个计划的教宗，编纂了它作为的一部分，天主教信仰在法令对教皇的首要和infallibility在梵蒂冈会（ 1869年至1870年） ，并强迫它与了前所未有的程度，罗马集中的特点天主教教会到20世纪60年代。 Leo XIII (1878-1903), the first pope in centuries to have chiefly spiritual obligations following the loss of the papal states, approved neo-Thomism as an official challenge to modern philosophy and defined a Catholic position on social justice over against radical labor unions.利奥十三（ 1878年至1903年） ，第一教皇在世纪之交有精神的义务，主要是以下的损失，教皇国，批准新thomism作为正式的挑战，现代哲学和确定了天主教的立场，对社会正义战胜反对激进的工会。 Pius X (1903-14) condemned scattered efforts to bring into the Catholic Church the critical study of Scripture and divergent philosophical views known collectively as "modernism."碧岳× （ 1903年至1914年）谴责分散的努力，把天主教教会的关键研究经文和不同的哲学观统称为“现代主义” 。 Pius XII (1939-58) used the papacy's infallible authority for the first time to define the bodily assumption of Mary as Catholic dogma.碧岳十二（ 1939年至1958年）用教皇的犯错的权力，为第一次，以确定身体的假设玛丽作为天主教的教条。 Throughout the last century mass media, mass transportation, and mass audiences have made the popes far better known and more highly reverenced in their persons (as distinguished from their office) than ever before.在整个上个世纪的大众媒体，大众运输，和群众的观众作出了教皇到目前为止，更好地了解和更多的高reverenced在他们的人（有别于他们的办公室）比以往任何时候都。 Vatican Council II (1962-65) brought deep reforms, in particular a much greater emphasis upon bishops acting collegially with one another and the pope.梵蒂冈理事会第二（ 1962年至1965年）所带来的深刻的改革，特别是更加重视后，主教团署理共事合议与一另一，以及天主教教宗。 Protestants are pleased to see a return to Scripture in the papacy's conception of the church's mission and the priest's office, together with a far greater openness toward other Christian churches.新教徒高兴地看到，回归圣经，在教皇的概念，教会的使命和神父的办公室，再加上远远更大程度的开放，对其他基督教。
Papal primacy rests upon the power of the keys which Christ conferred upon Peter and his successors, though it has obviously varied in principle and especially in practice throughout the centuries.教皇的首要取决于权力的钥匙基督赋予彼得和他的继任者，虽然它显然各有不同，原则和实践，特别是在整个世纪。 Leo the Great and the high medieval popes claimed for themselves a "fullness of power" which Vatican Council I defined as "ordinary" and "immediate" jurisdiction over the church and all the faithful in matters of discipline and ecclesiastical authority as well as faith and morals, thus potentially transforming the pope into a supreme bishop and all other bishops into mere vicars, an imbalance which Vatican Council II sought to redress with far greater emphasis upon the episcopal office.利奥的伟大和高中世纪教皇自称为自己“丰满的权力” ，梵蒂冈谨界定为“普通”和“即时”司法管辖权，教会和所有忠实的事项有纪律的和教会的权力，以及信仰和道德沦丧，因此，潜在的转化，教宗到了最高的主教和其他所有主教到vicars仅仅，一不平衡，梵蒂冈会二，设法补救具有深远更加重视后，主教办公室。 The triumph of papal primacy has nevertheless at least three noteworthy results.胜利教皇的首要尽管如此，至少有三个值得注意的结果。 (1) In the continuing tug of war between papal and conciliar/episcopal authority, the pope has effectively gained the upper hand. （ 1 ）在继续拔河之间的教皇和conciliar /主教的权力，教宗已有效地得到占了上风。 He alone has the divinely given power to convoke councils and to authorize their decisions (something reaffirmed at Vatican Council II).他独自拥有神赋予的权力，召集议会，并授权他们的决定（东西重申梵蒂冈理事会二） 。 (2) Since the fourteenth century, and especially since the ninteenth, episcopal appointments have been removed from local clergy and laymen and reserved to Rome (which tends to preserve loyalty to the pope but also prevents churches from falling prey to local factions and national governments). （ 2 ）自第十四世纪以来，特别是第十九，主教任命已被调离当地神职人员和普通人并保留向罗马（往往保存的忠诚教宗，但也妨碍教会落入圈套，地方派系和各国政府） 。 (3) In general, Rome's approval is needed for all laws which govern the church's institutions, liturgies which shape its worship, courts which enforce its discipline, orders which embody its religious life, and missions sent around the world, though there has been some decentralization in the immediate aftermath of Vatican Council II. （ 3 ）在一般，罗马的批准所需的所有法律管治教会的机构， liturgies ，其中形状，其崇拜，法院强制执行其纪律，命令，这些命令在体现其宗教生活，和使命，发送世界各地，虽然有一些在权力下放后立即梵蒂冈理事会第二。 Like all monarchical structures, primacy can be and usually is a very conservative force, though it can also initiate sweeping change, as in the reforms of the last two decades.象所有君权结构，首要可以和通常是一个非常保守势力，虽然它也可以主动清扫改变，因为在改革过去二十年间。
Until the last century, when papal pronouncements on a host of religious issues first became a regular feature of the Catholic Church, primacy in matters of faith and morals received far less attention than primacy of jurisdiction.直到上个世纪，当教皇的言论就一系列宗教问题首次成为一个经常性特征的天主教教会的首要事项的信仰和道德收到远不及注意比的首要管辖权。 Down to the sixteenth century and beyond, popes normally adjudicated matters first argued in schools and local churches, rather than initiating legislation themselves.到第十六世纪及以后，教宗通常裁决的事项第一辩称，在学校和地方教会，而非发起立法本身。 All bishops originally possessed the magisterium, or the authority to preserve and to teach the faith handed down from the apostles, and general councils of bishops were called (usually by emperors) to resolve controverted doctrinal issues.所有的主教原本拥有magisterium ，或权力，维护和教导的信念，传世从使徒，和一般评议会的主教，被称为（通常是由皇帝）来解决controverted理论问题。
Rome eventually gained a certain preeminence, owing partly to the fame of its apostolic "founders" (Peter and Paul) and partly to its enviable record of orthodoxy, though this was not always above reproach, as in the condemnation of Honorius I (625-38) for his position on monothelitism, something which entered into the debate on infallibility.罗马最终取得了某些卓越，部分原因是美誉，其使徒“创始人” （彼得和保罗）和部分其令人羡慕的纪录，正统，虽然这并不总是无可指责，因为在谴责挪我（ 625 - 38 ）为自己的立场monothelitism ，一些进入的辩论infallibility 。 In the High Middle Ages the unfailing faith Christ promised to pray for (Luke 22:31-32) was understood to apply not to the whole church but to the Roman Church and then more narrowly to the Roman pope.在高中世纪的不懈信仰基督的承诺，以祈求（路加福音22:31-32 ）被理解为不是适用于整个教会，但对罗马教会，然后更狭义的罗马教皇。 Infallibility was first ascribed to him in the fourteenth century and defined as binding dogma after much debate and some dissent in 1870. infallibility首先归因于他在14世纪和界定为具有约束力的教条，经过一番辩论和一些异议，在1870年。 This was intended to guarantee and preserve the truths of the apostolic faith.这是打算以保证和维护真理的使徒信念。 When Protestants disagree about Scripture's teaching on a certain doctrine, they appeal to a famous founder (Calvin, Wesley, etc.), their denominational creeds, or their own understanding; Catholics appeal to the authority they believe Christ conferred upon his vicar.当新教徒同意约圣经的教学对某学说，他们呼吁，以一个著名的创始人（卡尔文，韦斯利等） ，他们的教派教义，或其自己的理解;呼吁天主教徒的权威，他们相信基督赋予他的副主教。 Though popes are careful to distinguish fallible from infallible statements and have in fact made only one of the latter, their Petrine authority and frequent modern pronouncements can tend, as Luther first charged, to generate a new law and obscure the freedom of Christ.虽然教皇是仔细区分会犯错误从犯错的报表，并已在事实上，只有其中的后者，他们petrine管理局和频繁发生的现代言论，往往可以作为路德第一落案控告，生成一个新的法律和模糊的自由，基督。
The Orthodox considered the church to be organized around five patriarchates, with the see of Peter in the West holding a certain primacy of honor but not final authority. 东正教教会认为，将举办大约5 patriarchates ，随见彼得在西部地区举行了某些至高无上的荣誉，而不是最终的权力。 They have consistently refused to recognize any extraordinary magisterial authority (which resides in the teachings of general councils).他们始终拒绝承认任何不平凡的地方法院管理局（其中居住在教导一般议会） 。 The catalyst which finally divided the Eastern and Western churches in 1054 was Rome's revitalized claim to primacy, worsened by papal support for the crusades and establishment of a Latin hierarchy in the East.催化剂，最后分成东部和西部教会在1054年被罗马的振兴索赔的首要恶化，由罗马教皇的支持，十字军东征，并设立一个拉丁美洲的层次在东部地区。 As hostility toward Rome increased, the Orthodox became ever clearer in their exegesis of the keys: the church was built upon Peter's confession of faith (which the Orthodox had preserved intact), not upon Peter himself or his sometime wayward successors.作为敌视罗马的增加，东正教，成为以往任何时候都更清楚在他们的注释的钥匙：教会是建基于彼得的供认的信仰（即东正教已保存完好） ，而不是后，彼得自己或他的某个任性的接班人。 More recently, the Orthodox found the declaration of infallibility almost as offensive as did Protestants.最近，东正教会发现宣言infallibility几乎一样的进攻一样，新教徒。
Catholics have never uniformly reverenced the papacy to the degree that most Protestants believe and that the ultramontane movement of the last century might have suggested .天主教徒从来没有一致reverenced教宗向学位，大部分新教徒相信，并认为ultramontane运动上个世纪有可能建议。 Outright repudiation nevertheless was rare.买断推翻不过是罕见的。 The so-called Old Catholics split away after the infallibility decree, and a small conservative group has denounced the changes wrought by Vatican Council II.所以所谓旧的天主教徒分裂远离后， infallibility法令，和一个小保守团体谴责的变化所造成的梵蒂冈理事会第二。 But in the last generation some theologians, led by Hans Kung, have openly questioned infallibility, and many faithful Catholic have rejected the stand on contraception enunciated in Pope Paul VI's Humanae vitae (1968).但在上一代的一些神学家，为首的汉斯西贡，曾公开质疑infallibility ，许多忠实的天主教有拒绝的立场，关于避孕阐述了在保禄六世的humanae简历（ 1968年） 。 There is increased suspicion of Roman primatial claims and considerable ferment in favor of episcopal and conciliar authority.有增加的怀疑，罗马primatial索赔和相当的发酵，在有利于主教和conciliar管理局。 But whether this is merely a momentary reaction or something of lasting significance is not yet clear.但是否这只是一个短暂的反应或一些持久的意义尚不清楚。
Until the last generation Protestants have had almost nothing but evil to say of the papacy. Luther, contrary to popular myth, did not revolt easily against papal authority and for a long time held to the conviction of a Petrine office charged with the care of souls in the church; but when he became convinced that the vicar of Christ had in fact distorted and obstructed the proclamation of the gospel, he labeled him instead the "antichrist," and that label stuck for centuries. 直到最后一代新教徒已几乎没有，但邪恶说的教宗。路德，相反，流行的神话，没有反抗，容易对教皇的权威和相当长的时间举行的信念，一petrine办公室被控以照顾的灵魂在教会里，但，当他成为相信副主教基督已在事实上被扭曲，阻碍了宣布福音，他标示为他而不是“ antichrist ” ，该标签停留数百年。 Indeed "popery" and its equivalent in other languages came to stand for all that was wrong with the Roman Catholic Church.事实上， “ popery ” ，并与其等值的其他语言来的立场，为所有，这是错误的，与罗马天主教会。
Liberal Protestants have meanwhile dismissed the papacy as a vestige of superstition, while several extremely conservative groups, often in gross misunderstanding of the papacy and its actual function, continue to link it with all that is evil in the world. 自由新教徒同时驳回了教皇作为一个遗迹迷信，而一些极端保守团体，往往在毛额的误解，教宗和其实际功能，继续将它连结与所有这一切都是邪恶在世界上。
Since Vatican Council II evangelical Christians have come better to understand and to appreciate the pope as a spokesman for Christ's church, yet few would go so far as some ecumenically minded Lutherans, who suggested that a less authoritarian papacy could function as the rallying point for a reunited church. 自梵蒂冈理事会第二福音派基督徒来更好地了解和欣赏，教宗作为一个发言人基督的教会，但很少人会去这么远一些ecumenically志同道合的lutherans ，谁建议，那么威权教皇功能，可以作为凝聚点一回归教会。 Most Protestants still consider the notion of a primatial Petrine office, instituted by Christ and conferred upon the bishops of Rome, to be scripturally and historically unfounded.最新教徒仍考虑的概念1 primatial petrine办公室，由基督赋予主教罗马，要scripturally和历史上是毫无根据的。 Therefore the doctrine and office of the papacy will probably continue to divide Catholic from Protestant and Orthodox Christians for the foreseeable future.因此，理论和办公室教宗可能会继续分化，从天主教新教和东正教基督徒为可预见的将来。
J Van
Engen j教授范恩根
(Elwell Evangelical Dictionary)
（ elwell福音事工促进会，字典）
Bibliography
参考书目
NCE, X, 951-70;
XI, 779-81; LTK, VIII, 36-48; VI, 884-90; DTC, XI, 1877-1944; XIII, 247-391;
RGG, V, 51-85; TG Jalland, The Church and the Papacy; K. von Aretin, The Papacy
and the Modern World; JD Holmes, The Triumph of the Holy See; S. Hendrix, Luther
and the Papacy; PC Empie, ed., Papal Primacy and the Universal Church; C. Mirbt
and K. Aland, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums und des romischen
Katholizismus. nce ，第十， 951-70 ;席， 779-81 ; ltk ，八， 36-48 ;六， 884-90
;接受存款公司，西安， 1877年至1944年;第十三， 247-391 ; rgg ，五， 51-85 ;的TG jalland ，教会和教皇;
k.冯阿雷廷，教宗和现代世界;第纳尔霍尔姆斯，胜利教廷;第里克斯，路德和教皇; PC机empie ，教育署，教皇的首要和普世教会;长米尔布特和K奥兰，
quellen zur历史馆万papsttums und万romischen katholizismus 。
This term is employed in an ecclesiastical and in an historical signification.这个名词是受聘于一个教会和在历史意义。 In the former of these uses it denotes the ecclesiastical system in which the pope as successor of St. Peter and Vicar of Jesus Christ governs the Catholic Church as its supreme head.在以前的这些用途，它是指教会制度中，教宗继任圣彼得和副主教耶稣基督执政的天主教教会作为其最高元首。 In the latter, it signifies the papal influence viewed as a political force in history.在后者，它标志着教皇的影响力看成是一种政治力量在历史上。 (See APOSTOLIC SEE; APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION; CHURCH; PAPAL ARBITRATION; POPE; UNITY.) （见使徒见;使徒继承;教会;教皇仲裁;教宗;团结） 。
Publication information Written by GH Joyce.出版的资料，撰写的生长激素乔伊斯。 Transcribed by Marcia L. Bellafiore.转录由马西娅研究bellafiore 。 The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XI.天主教百科全书，货量十一。 Published 1911. 1911年出版。 New York: Robert Appleton Company.纽约：罗伯特阿普尔顿公司。 Nihil Obstat, February 1, 1911. nihil obstat ， 1911年2月1日。 Remy Lafort, STD, Censor.的Remy lafort ，性病，检查员。 Imprimatur. imprimatur 。 +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York +约翰farley枢机主教，大主教，纽约
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